Schemata, Eye Witnesses and Memory Distortions

Definitions:
Schema: cognitive frameworks of the way that certain things should be - these ideas and frameworks of thinking are developed as a result of experience.
Memory: the way that one recalls information that was once processed.
Eye-witness: the witness of an incident of a third-person.

Experiments:
Loftus and Palmer, 1974
Loftus believed that memory was a reconstructive process, just as Bartlett had suggested in his "War of the Ghosts" study in 1932. She wanted to know how leading questions would affect the memory of an eye-witness. She chose to show how the memory of participants of a study could change depending on the way that a 'critical question' of an incident (i.e. a short film of a car crash) was worded. Palmer, on the other hand, was interested in seeing how questioning could change the memory of participants.
Loftus and Palmer collected participants in America in the 70s to watch a film of two cars crashing into each other. After viewing the video, the participants were as "how fast were the cars going when they hit/smashed/crashed/touched each other?" The main verb in the question was different according to the group that the participants were assigned by the researchers. As a result, Loftus and Palmer found that participants that were asked "how fast were the cars going when they crashed/smashed into each other?" had the fasted estimates, especially among subjects who were asked "how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?"
Loftus and Palmer concluded that this was due to the critical question's main verb's impression on the individual. Words such as smash and crash were attached to schemata of severe crashes, while words such as "came into contact" and "hit" were not as severe. Loftus found that leading questions could indeed change or alter the memory of the participants. This suggests that eye-witness testimonials are not accurate and can be manipulated depending on the question that is asked of the eye-witness. In a later study, Loftus and Palmer divided participants into three groups, where all three groups watched the same video once again but were asked a series of questions. One group was asked "how fast were the cards going when they smashed into each other?", another was asked "how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" and the control group was asked questions but not of the speed of the cars. Two weeks later, participants were called back and asked whether they remember glass breaking in the videos. Suprisingly, those that were asked "how fast were the cars going when the smashed into each other?" had a 33% rate of participants saying that they had seen glass, while only 14 percent of the second group saw glass. Only 6 percent of the control group claimed they had seen glass. In reality, there was no glass. This second study suggests that initial processing that is manipulated by leading questions and schemata are liable to affect the way that consequences are processed in the future. As a result, it can be concluded that memory of witnesses, ie eye witness testimonials are susceptible to distortion and thus are no reliable. It also explains how schemata can affect the way that memories are kept, just as Bartlett had suggested in his 1932 study.

However, there are instances in psychology experiments where it has been shown that general details are remembered clearly by eye-witnesses, even under severely stressful and high-risk situations. An example is a relatively recent study that analysed the eye-witness testimonials of how the titanic sank: whether it broke in half before sinking, or sunk intact. The eye witnesses (with the exception of two people) said that the ship had sunk after breaking, despite the 'leading questions' asked by the British and American hearings a few days after the titanic rescue. While this is a general detail that was remembered by the eye witnesses, it brings upon the question of whether specific details are accurately recalled by witnesses. (Titanic eye witness study by Riniolo).

Potential Exam Questions

Biological Level of Analysis (SAQ)

1. Explain how determinism relates to the biological perspective.
2. Explain why the reductionist approach is regarded as controversial.
3. Describe one study from the biological perspective and discuss how this study has contributed to our understanding of behavior.
4. Outline one strength and one limitation of the biological perspective in explaining one psychological or social question.
5. Explain how one hormone influences human behavior.
6. Explain how evolution has influenced human behavior.
7. Explain how one or more neurotransmitters affect human behavior.
8. Explain how one study demonstrates localisation of the brain.
9. Distinguish between localisation and lateralisation.

(LAQ)

1. Describe one study from the biological perspective and discuss how this study has contributed to our understanding of behavior.
2. Evaluate two research methods that are used in the biological perspective.
3. Discuss ethical considerations related to genetic influences of behavior.
4. Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the BLA, with reference to at least one study.
5. Discuss the use of brain imaging technoloqies to investigate the relationship between biological factors and behavior.

Cognitive Level of Analysis (SAQ)

1. Outline one assumption of the cognitive perspective. Identify one key concept based on the assumption outlined above and explain their relationship.
2. Explain how one key concept from the cognitive perspective helps us understand behavior.
3. Explain one theoretical explanation of human behavior in the cognitive perspective.
4. Describe one study that investigated the schema theory.
5. Explain cognitive dissonance.
6. Outline two principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.
7. Outline how emotion affects one cognitive process.
8. Describe one ethical consideration related to one research study at the cognitive level.
9. Explain how one biological factor can affect a cognitive process.

(LAQ)

1. Assess the extent to which one model of information has helped in understanding cognitive processes.

2. Explain the extent to which free will and determinism relate to the cognitive perspective.

3. To what extent do social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process?

4. To what extent is one cognitive process reliable?

Social Cultural Level of Analysis (SAQ)

1. Describe one theory that is relevant to the social learning theory.
2. Describe one theory that is relevant to the social identity theory.
3. Outline two errors in attribution.
4. Describe one theory or study on the formation of stereotypes.
5. Explain one compliance technique.
6. Explain why one particular method has been utilised in the socio-cultural level of analysis.
7. Distinguish between emic and etic.
8. Explain factors that influence conformity.
9. With reference to a study, explain conformity.
10. Discuss the use of technology in investigating the relationship between cognitive factors and behavior.

(LAQ)

1. Using empirical studies, explain two research studies that were employed by psychologists in the socio-cultural level of analysis.
2. Evaluate one or more applications of one theory in the socio-cultural level of analysis.
3. Discuss factors influencing conformity.
4. Outline and evaluate schema theory with reference to studies.
5. Evaluate social identity theory with reference to relevant studies.
6. Discuss factors influencing conformity.
7. Discuss the reliability of one cognitive process.

Flashbulb Memory: Brown and Kulik (1977)

Flashbulb Memory

Brown and Kulik (1977)

Emotion can affect one's memory of an occurrence. According to LeDoux, a psychologist who argued that there are biological pathways of emotion in the brain, the arousal of emotion will facilitate the memory of events that occur during that aroused state. However, one should always remember that memory can be enhanced and amplified by an intense emotion, but will not always be accurate.

The theory of flashbulb memory was suggested by Brown and Kulik in 1977. This theory suggests that some memories are remembered distinctly - even after time had passed - because the events incited highly emotional responses at the time. The emotional events are recorded in the brain as if by the flash of a camera.

Brown and Kulik found that people had clear memories of where they had been, what they had been doing, and what had happened in events in which they were emotionally involved. Examples include when JFK and MLK Jr. had been assassinated. These participants of the study were asked if they also had flashbulb memories of personal events. Out of the 80 participants, 73 said yes for events that were especially emotional, such as traumatic events or the deaths of family members. 

Explaining the actuality of the flashbulb theory: Brown and Kulik attempted to explain the biology of this effect by suggesting that there were special neural mechanisms that triggered emotional arousal for unexpected or extremely important events. This hypothesis is now supported by modern neuroscience: emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events. While reasons are still unknown to us, it could be because of the involvement of the amygdala (which is responsible for emotional responses and memory.

Neisser (1982): Argues against the flashbulb memory theory:

Neisser argued that flashbulb memory was not a cogent theory as people do not know that events are important until after the event is over. Thus, Neisser feels that the reason that some memories are especially vivid is due to their being rehearsed over and over again, once the event is known to be "important". Neisser argues that flashbulb memory is due to internal narrative: "where was I when [important event] happened?" "what was I doing when [important event] happened?" "who told me about [important event]?"...

Vivid Memories are Not Always Accurate:

In January of 1986, seven astronauts aboard the space shuttle Challenger died due to a tragic accident. This event was aired on television, so it was a shocking event for all its audience. Neisser and Harsch (1992) investigated people's memory accuracy of that event, 24 hours within the timeframe that the accident occurred, and once again 2 years later. They found that the participants were very confident in the accuracy of their memories, but 40% of them had distorted memories after the second year. Neisser and Harsch analyse that this is due to post-event information that has jumbled up their initial memory of the events. Inaccuracy of emotional memories are common, just as they are vivid. Talarico and Rubin found in 2003 that the confidence that one has of his memory is not correlated with the accuracy of that memory.

While post-event information can distort memories, it is recognised that present-views and emotions of past-events also affect one's memory. For example, men who are divorced will reflect back upon events that occurred while they were married in a more negative perception than they actually would had they remained in a successful marriage (Holmberg and Holmes 1994).

Emotion and Memory: Eye-witness testimonials of Titanic Accident

Click here for PDF with annotations.
Click here for YouTube video supplement for the PDF (read the PDF first).

Internal Assessment: Writing Your Introduction

An example / template of a first-draft introduction: Craik and Tulving, 1975
HL Introduction

At any given time, humans are overwhelmed with information: sensory information (such as smells, sights and sounds), information from fellow humans, or input from mass media. While we have grown accustomed to subconsciously filtering and interpreting the constant input of information, some pieces of information are remembered better than others. What determines the ability to remember those pieces of information? It could be the importance of the information, relative to the person, or perhaps the degree of depth in which the information is processed. The discipline that studies how individuals process and remember information is within cognitive psychology: the study of the mental processes of people.

Craik & Tulving (1975) attempted to understand how some information is recalled with more ease than others. The study primary came into being in an attempt to falsify the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory (1967), and support Craik & Lockhart's levels-of-processing model (1972). The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory proposes that human memory follows a sequence of three stages: sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory. Craik and Tulving thus attempted theorize that memory retention was greatly affected by the depth of processing performed by the individual, rather than chronology. The aim of their 1975 study was to test different levels of processing in subjects to investigate whether depth of processing was involved in memory retention.

In the experiment, the information was presented to the subjects in the form of simple two-syllable nouns; before being shown the words, subjects were asked questions that would require a certain type of processing. The three different levels of processing that the subjects would use were: phonemic or structural ( - a shallow level of processing), and semantic processing ( - a deep level of processing). The phonemic level of processing would be used by subjects when the given question was related to the way a word sounds, structural levels of processing would be used when given questions concerned the physical appearance of the word, and semantic levels of processing would be used when questions inquired on the context the word could be used in. Craik and Tulving hypothesized that words processed via deeper levels (i.e. semantic processing) would take longer to answer but yield a more elaborate memory trace and higher recall performance.

For this study, the aim is to see if information is more easily retained when it is processed through "deeper processing" or "shallow processing". Use of the same levels of processing as Craik and Tulving will be utilized to test the memory-retention in subjects.

CLA: Further Evaluation of Principles

• Principles in the cognitive level of analysis:

1. Human beings are information processors -- mental processes guide behavior:
   - The mind can be viewed as a complex machine, like an intelligent, information processing computer. The brain is the hardware, while the mental processing that takes place in the brain is the software. Mental processing is performed in order to make sense of the world. There are ways in which people can make mistakes when they process information, such as by the influence of schemata. (Schemata are mental frameworks developed by previous experiences that influence the way future events and situations are perceived.) In addition, the mind is able to fabricate completely false memories, which can often make our mental processes fallible.
   According to the cognitive level of analysis, information input to the mind occurs via bottom-up processing -- from the sensory systems of the organism to the mind.
2. The mind can be studied scientifically, with the use of developing theories and scientific technology / scientific research methods: New theories that are often developed in the cognitive level of analysis can serve as an amendment for old theories, or can disprove old theories as false. This principle of the cognitive level of analysis is debatable because the research of scientific research methods in studying human behavior means that the studies often lack ecological validity. Cognition should be studied both in the laboratory environment as well as in a daily context.
3. Cognitive processes are influenced by both social and cultural factors: Frederic Bartlett (the cognitive psychologist known for coining the term "schema" with his 1932 experiment, War of the Ghosts) was the first to suggest this principle. He observed the effect of cultural cognitive frameworks on memory (aka cultural schemata on memory) and found that the memories were greatly influenced by the subjects' already-possessed frameworks of thinking. He found that people had problems remembering details from stories that are from different cultures. Bartlett demonstrated in his research that memory is not like a tape-recorder, simply recording what is"there", but is a reconstructive process. The reconstructing of memory for recall is why memory has the tendency to be distorted. 

CLA Study - Frederic Bartlett (1932)

Cultural Cognitive Schema
Frederic Bartlett - considered one of the first cognitive psychologists of his time.

• Studied the recall abilities in subjects who heard a story from a different culture in order to examine the relationship of cognitive schemata and memory capacity. 

Bartlett used British subjects and gave them a short Native American legend called "The War of the Ghosts". They were told to read the story two times, and then after a short interval they were told to recall the story that they had just read. They were then to visit the laboratory several times over the course of weeks, months and years. This method is called serial reproduction - where the subjects have to recall the same story over different intervals of time.

• Laboratory experiment - question the ecological validity of this study.
• Cultural diversity - all the subjects were British, and the story they read was a Native American legend.
• Read the story here

As a result, Bartlett found that the subjects were all prone to similar errors in their recall abilities. These are:

• Assimilation: the subjects contorted the story so that it would fit their cultural standards. Bartlett interpreted this to be because it made it easier for the subjects to remember the story if it fit their cultural norms. The subjects' cultural schemata was responsible for the distorting of the true facts  during their recall.
• Cognitive schema: a mental view or expectations you have on certain subjects due to past experiences. Current or inherent cognitive schemata will alter the way you will interpret information in the future. In this case, cultural experiences and schemata have altered the facts of the legend in a way that made it easier for the subjects to make the incongruous facts more coherent to themselves.
• Leveling: when the subjects recalled the story, it was much shorter than the original. This is because the subjects unconsciously discarded information from the legend that did not fit their cultural schemata or standards. Information that was not comprehensible culturally was considered excess / incongruous.
• Sharpening: the subjects tended to change the order of the story in order to make it more coherent to themselves. They also tended to add emotions and extra information that was not in the original story in order to fit their own cultural frameworks. 

The subjects still recalled the general theme of the story but changed small details in order to make the stories more coherent to their expectations. The subjects distorted the story in this way because it is easier to remember things that follow a certain cognitive rule - in this case, it is cultural schemata. 

*However, it should be noted that extreme schemata-contradicting facts tend to stick in one's memory as well. This is because the information comes as a "shock" to the subjects.

Interpretation: Bartlett concluded that memory recall was a reconstructive process, not a passive process of simply remembering the words for what they are. The fact that the subjects were prone to alter the stories to fit their expectations supports Bartlett's theory. Reconstruction allows subjects to making meaning out of what they remember.

• Memories are not copies of experiences. The mind alters and interprets these experiences. 

Evaluation / things to consider:

• Gender of the subjects is not considered - most likely, both genders were used
• Serial reproduction was a method, but otherwise nothing was rigorously controlled
• Laboratory experiment = are the results ecologically valid?
• Naturalistic material was used instead of non-sense material = good
• Distinct instructions were not given to the participants

3.3 CLA Outcomes

Summary of 3.3
Cognitive level of analysis: An integrative look at happiness

Are rich people happier? ... This is not always the case.

According to the psychologist Lyubomirsky (2001), our inborn genetic set-point for happiness can account for up to 50 percent of our own happiness, where as 10 percent is due to circumstances and 40 percent is something that can be influenced by each individual. Happiness is not a concretely constructed concept... it may just be a cultural construction. 

Cognitive factors in happiness: beliefs about happiness:

Although people in the Western world are richer, they are not necessarily happier. This could be because people tend to compare themselves to others. Leon Festinger came up with a cognitive theory called the social comparison theory, where people learn about and assess themselves by comparison with others. According to the social comparison theory, people are happy if they have more than those they normally compare themselves to. Another explanation is that people link happiness to reaching certain goals, but they tend to set higher goals once they have achieved the first ones, therefore they end up never really feeling happy. Julian Rotter proposed the level of aspiration theory. This theory suggests that people examine what they can gain and how likely it is that they will achieve it before they make decisions about what to do. Expectations are influenced by previous experience as well as a desire to reach their goals. People begin to calculate and formulate their general expectancies -  general ideas about what to expect in different situations. People are more motivated to achieve the goals that they set. However, the amount of happiness that is attained as a result of the goals are often too short-lived and minimal.

Myers and Dieners (1995) have shown that there is a contradiction between wealth and happiness. They found that although the proportion of Americans who said that they were very happy remained stable at around 1/3 while the incomes of Americans as a whole increased in the last fifty years. This suggests that there is no direct link between an increase in wealth and happiness. 

Hagerty (2003) studied the relationship between happiness and distributions of wealth. He found that happiness was positively correlated with equality of distribution of wealth in the country. The average level of life satisfaction was high as the inequality of income decreased. This can be explained via Festinger's social comparison theory. People tend to compare themselves to others, and comparing yourself to those who are more fortunate (aka upward comparison) leads to dissatisfaction.

Johnson and Kruger (2006) found that although many people believe there is a relationship between happiness and wealth, it is more "satisfaction with one's own salary that brings happiness." The size of the salary does not matter- the satisfaction of the individual with his/her own salary does. Therefore, if an individual thinks they are not getting paid enough, they are likely to be more dissatisfied. By comparing themselves to those who have higher salaries, they are dissatisfied as well.

Conway, di Fazio and Mayman (1999) from Canada investigated the illusion that "money brings happiness" in a group young males and females. Researchers found that there is a widespread belief that a high-status person was generally happier, less angry, less depressed and experienced less fear in their daily lives than low-status people.
⇒Like these, faulty assumptions and associations with variables are called illusory correlations. ⇒This study demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between wealth and happiness, even though this is not supported by psychological research.

Socio-cultural factors in happiness:

According to the Dalai Lama, the key to happiness is in our own hands. Happiness can be achieved through systematic training of the mind and heart, and through the reshaping of attitudes and outlook. 矢⇒The whole point of life is to be happy.
⇒Happiness is determined by one's state of mind than external conditions, as long as basic survival needs are met.
⇒Compassion for other people is an important part of one's spiritual development. It is also the basis for individual happiness and pleasure.

⇒Dalai Lama: "If people base their happiness on wealth, they will no longer be happy when they lose it. If they base their happiness on connectedness to other people, they will still have something valuable even once they lose all their money. Having empathy and trusting others are important steps toward true happiness."

It is true that average life satisfaction of nations is highly related to income, simply because this is associated with the fulfillment of basic needs and living longer. Experiencing positive emotions is also associated with social variables such as trust, safety and the lack of corruption. (This is positive psychology = psychology with the aim of conducting research that promotes human happiness and well-being)

Biological factors of happiness:

⇒People tend to adapt to their environments.
⇒Humans have inherited the ability to habituate (get used to things) to life's circumstances.
⇒This is why humans seem to get used to pleasant things, and start to take them for granted.
⇒Humans also have inherited the tendency to notice trouble, so we focus on the more troublesome aspects of life.
⇒Humans seem to have an inner voice of dissatisfaction that prompts us to strive for MORE.

Genetics:

David Lykken: "We have an innate base-line or set-point of happiness that depends largely on the individual." The Happiness Twin Study conducted by David Lykken et al in 1996, which compared happiness scores among sets of identical and fraternal twins who grew up together or were reared apart. If the twins have similar happiness levels but are reared apart, then happiness must be genetic. ⇒Researchers found that identical twins had very similar happiness scores, and fraternal twins did not: leading them to conclude that each individual has a genetically influenced set-point for happiness, and that 50 percent of the difficulties in a person's happiness level is genetically determined.

The researchers also suggested that only 10 percent of the variance in happiness levels can be explained by situation factors. This is supported by research where richer and more beautiful people are not happier than the average person. Therefore, 40 percent of happiness remains to be in the control of the individual. 

Typical characteristics of happy people, according to Sonja Lyubomirsky in The How of Happiness

• They devote time to family and friends
• They can express gratitude for what they have
  
• They are the first to volunteer to help others
• They are naturally optimistic
• They enjoy pleasures of live and live in the present
• They spend time doing physical activities
• They are committed to lifelong goals 
• They cope well in calamities

3.2 CLA Outcomes

Learning outcomes for 3.2
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognition and Emotion

A little insight into the power of emotions in cognitive processes:

- People remember better the experiences that involve emotions. Emotions are rich and diverse, and they are often what make the experience something special. Antonio Damasio, a brain researcher explains that emotions are simply the physical signs of the body which react to outside/external stimuli.

- The three components of emotion:

Physiological changes; arousal of the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system that are not conscious

Subjective feelings; a person's own subjective feeling of an emotion (e.g. happiness)

Associated behavior; such as smiling [happy] or running away [frightened]

- A perceived dangerous event or stimulus will result in a physiological response known as fight or flight, which prepares the individual for direct action to confront the danger or to avoid to, and a cognitive appraisal of arousal - a decision about what to do based on previous experience.



- Discuss the extent to which cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion:

① Biological factors in emotion: 

The amygdala is a small structure in the temporal love that is known to be critical in the brain's emotional circuit. The amygdala is thought to have an important role in emotional memories. 
Studies performed on animals and humans indicate that the stress hormones (e.g. adrenaline) are released when strong emotions are evoked.

LeDoux's model of biological pathways of emotion in the brain

In The Emotional Brain (1999), the author LeDoux delineates two biological pathways of emotions in the brain.

1. Short route: goes from the thalamus to the amygdala for induction of emotional response
2. Long route: passes via neocortex and hippocampus before reaching an emotional response 

The amygdala receives input from the sensory processing areas in the neocortex and thamalus, and projects / expresses these to areas in the brainstem that control response systems. The connections in between the different brain structures is what allow the amygdala  to transform sensory information into emotional signals and to control our emotional responses.

Most of these processes are non-conscious.

According to LeDoux, the advantages of having direct and indirect pathways to the amygdala is flexibility in responses. When danger is perceived, the fast and direct pathway is useful because it saves time. Long pathways are useful because they allow for a more thorough evaluation of a situation that can help people and animals to avoid inappropriate responses to certain situations.

② Cognitive factors in emotion - appraisal:

Lazarus' definition of appraisal: evaluations related to how the situation will impact one's personal well-being. If the appraisal is positive: positive emotions will emerge. If the appraisal is negative: appraisal that assesses potential harm will result in negative emotions.

Lazarus (1975): "Cognitive appraisal is an important part of people's reaction to emotional stress , and that stress experiences are not only physiological." This statement means that people are psychological beings that are not simply passively responding to the world - they actively interpret and evaluate their situation.

- According to the appraisal theory, cognitive factors can modulate stress responses, such as the psychological and physiological reactions that are involved in the experience.
- Appraisal can be seen as an evaluation of the situation, like how people evaluate psychological and material resources to cope with the stressful event at hand.

⇒Speisman et al. (1964) An Experimental Manipulation of Emotions Through Cognitive Appraisal
Aim: To investigate the extent to which manipulation of cognitive appraisal could influence emotional experience.
Procedure: In this laboratory experiment, the participants saw anxiety-evoking films, such as one with an aboriginal initiation ceremony  where adolescent boys were subjected to unpleasant genital cutting.These films were shown with three different soundtracks that were intended to manipulate emotional reactions. The trauma condition group has a soundtrack with emphasis on the mutilation and pain; the intellectualization condition group has a soundtrack that gave an anthropological interpretation of the initiation ceremony; the denial condition group showed the adolescents as being willing and happy in the ceremony.
During each viewing of the film various objective physiological measures were taken, such as heart rate and galvanic skin response.
Results: The participants in the trauma condition group showed higher physiological measures of stress than the participants in the other two conditions. The results support the appraisal theory in that the manipulation of the participants' cognitive appraisal had significant impacts on the physiological stress reactions. The participants in the trauma condition reacted much more emotionally.
Evaluation: This lab experiment had a lot of controls, so lacks ecological validity. However, research on the role of appraisal in real-life emotional events tend to find the same relationship as the lab results. This study could be a demonstration of how biological and cognitive factors interact in emotion and illustrates LeDoux's theory of the two pathways in emotional processing.

Cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a large extent, but in complex ways tat are not well known. Emotions may influence cognitive processes such as memory, and cognitive processes like appraisal can influence emotions, but little is known about the exact workings of the physiological correlates of emotion.
The influence is often bidirectional and this has been explored within health and abnormal psychology. Neuroimaging investigators of emotion have identified areas in the prefrontal loves associated with active reappraisal of the emotional importance of events. This indicates that it is possible to regulate negative emotions via appraisal. (Ochsner and Gross, 2008).



- Evaluate one theory of how emotions may affect one cognitive process (flashbulb theory)
According to LeDoux, the arousal of emotion can facilitate the memory of events that occur during that aroused state. However, these memories might not always be accurate.
The theory of the flashbulb memory was suggested by Brown and Kulik (1977). Flashbulb memory is a special kind of emotional memory which refers to vivid and detailed memories of very emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with the help of a camera's flash. 
Brown and Kulik found that people said that they had very clear memories of where they were, what they did and what they felt when they first learned about an important public occurrence, such as assassinations of JFK, and Martin Luther King. The participants of the study recalled the assassination of JFK most vividly. People in the study were also asked if they had flashbulb memories of personal events... out of the 80 participants, 73 participants said that they had flashbulb memories associated with a personal shock such as a sudden death of a close relative.
Brown and Kulik suggested that there might be a special neural mechanism that triggers an emotional arousal because the event is unexpected or very important. This was only a hypothesis, but it is supported by modern neuroscience. (That is, emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events - perhaps because of the critical role of amygdala.)

Criticisms of the flashbulb theory:
Neisser (1982) questioned the idea of the flashbulb theory because people don't always know that an event important, until later. Neisser suggests that the memories are so vivid because the event itself is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event. According to Neisser, what is called a flashbulb memory might just be a narrative convention. These flashbulb memories are governed by a story-telling schema that follows a specific structure, such as place (where we were), activity (doing what?), informant  (who told us?) and affect (how do we feel about it?).

Example: January 28th, 1986:
Seven astronauts on the space shuttle CHALLENGER were killed in an accident. It was a shocking experience for those who saw the shuttle launch, in person or through the TV. Neisser and Harsch (1992) investigated people's memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident and once again two years later. The participants were confident that their memory was correct, but the researchers found that 40 percent of the memories were distorted in their final reports. Perhaps post-event information had influenced their memories. The researchers concluded that inaccuracy of emotional memories is very common.

It has been stated that current attitudes and emotions also affect the accuracy of memory. Past emotional memories are partly reconstructed based on the individual's current appraisal of events.
Holmberg and Holmes (1994) = found that men who had less happy marriages recalled early interactions in the marriage as being more negative than they really were.
Breckler (1994) = found that people's current attitudes towards blood donation impacted their memories about how they felt when they donated blood in the past.
*These are just theories.

3.1 CLA Outcomes

Learning outcomes for 3.1
Cognitive Level of Analysis & Cognitive Processes:

First of all, what is cognitive psychology?

Cognitive psychology concerns itself with the structure and functions of one's mind. Cognitive psychologists are involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the world and how the knowledge is used.

-Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

1. Human beings are information processors and mental processes guide behavior.

The mind can be viewed as a complex machine - like an intelligent, information-processing machine that uses hardware (brain) and software (mental images) in order to understand concepts

2. The mind can be studied scientifically by developing theories and using a number of scientific research methods.

This can be demonstrated in theories of cognition which are discussed, then tested. New findings can serve to be amendments for old theories, or can disprove old theories altogether. However: this scientific reliance is not ecologically valid.

3. Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors.

British psychologist Frederic Bartlett, founder of the term "schema", created this word to define the mental representation of knowledge. Bartlett was interested in seeing how cultural schemas influenced one's memory. For example, people have a hard time remembering other cultures' story, and were prone to reconstruct the story to fit in their OWN culture.

-Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

The first principle of the cognitive level of analysis, 'mental processes guides behavior' can be demonstrated by research performed by Dweck and Blackwell (2007). They researched about the role a person's mindset has in affecting a person's behavior. The participants used were low achieving students aged 12-13 y/o. All students were given an introductory lecture about the brain, and study skills. Then, half of the students took lectures of how intelligence can be developed through physical exercise, just as a body can be trained through physical exercise. As a result, the students who were trained to adopt a growth mindset about how intelligence can be improved were more motivated. This was demonstrated in their maths grades. Students in the group that did not attend the intelligence lecture showed no improvement, despite all the other interventions. Dweck states that by telling the students that their intelligence can be developed, their motivations to learn are impacted greatly. This research shows that mental processes do guide behavior.
The second principle, 'the mind can be studied scientifically' is possible because of the amazing technology that we have access to in the 21st century. CAT and fMRI scanes make it possible for us to look into peoples' brain processes. This is shown in theories and modes of cognition that are discussed and continuously tested. At times, new findings result in amendments to the original theory. The old theory or model can even be rejected completely because the empirical evidence does not support it. Also the experimental method is good because the variables can be altered freely, ecological validity is a problem. In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser said that cognitive psychology was too artificial and that researchers should never forget that cognition cannot be isolated from everyday experiences. This is why cognitive psychology is studied both in the lab and out of the lab.
The third principle, 'cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors' can be demonstrated in research done by the British psychologist, Fredric Bartlett. He coined the term 'schema', and carried out research related to how cultural schemas influence rememvering. He found that people have problems when they tried to remember stories from other cultures, and tried to reconstruct the stories according to their own cultural schemas. This also explains why memory can be subject to distortions.

-Discuss how and why particular research methods are used by cognitive researchers

Originally, laboratory experiments were the most popular methods of studies of cognitive psychology. The strengths of lab experiments were that all the variables could be controlled. However, the lack of ecological validity in lab experiments was a large disadvantage - human nature changes depending on the situation. Of recent, case studies have become increasingly popular methods of study in the field of cognitive psychology. Modern technologies (CAT and fMRI scans) are also technologies used by cognitive psychologists to study the areas of the brain that make decisions, etc.

-Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

For studies that use modern technology such as CAT and fMRI scans, the most worrisome ethical aspects would be: anonymity and the right to withdraw. If the anonymity of a subject is not respected, then their self-esteem can be hurt. Also, for case studies, the anonymity should definitely be kept (confidentiality).

-Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

A lot of research support the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory. This theory of schemas is useful in order to understand how people interpret information, stories, and make inferences. A limitation is evident with the schema theory that Bartlett had thought of: this is due to the ambiguity and vagueness of the theory itself. Cohen (1993) criticized the schema theory saying that the concept was too vague to be helpful in understanding the cognitive processes of humans.

A study that supports the fact that schema has effects on memory: Anderson and Pichert (1978) proceeded with an experiment in an attempt to investigate whether schema processing was able to influence encoding and retrieval of the memory making process. Participants heard a story about a pair of boys who skipped school and went to the home of one of them, knowing the parents would not be home. The participants were described the facts of the story - and were told to re-understand the story of the house from the point of view of a buyer and the point of view of a burglar. (This was the encoding period). Then, for 12 minutes the subjects were given tasks that kept their minds off of things. After another 5 minute delay in the experiment, half of the participants were given the OTHER point of view to consider. The other half was told to retain their schema from the "encoding" process. As a result, the researchers found that the group with the CHANGED schema recalled 7 percent more points on the second recall test compared to the first trial. The recall of the points that were directly linked to the new schema was increased by 10 percent, whereas recall points that were important to the first schema (and only the first schema) declined. The researchers found that the group which continued with the first schema remembered FEWER details at the second trial. This research suggested that people encoded information, but this was irrelevant to their prevailing schema. The second schema was more effective. 

-Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies

Cognitive process: the multi-store and working model of memory
How many: there are two - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): Multi-store model of memory

The multi-store model of memory / Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Atkinson and Shiffrin were among the first to create a basic structure of memory, using their "multi-sore model of memory". The model created after this, called the working model of memory was based on this model.
This model is based on the two assumptions that memory consists of a number of separate stores and that the memory processes are sequential. 
"Rehearsing" simply means that a task/something needs to be repeated several times in order to be stored into our heads. Information from the world enters sensory memory, which is modality specific - this means that it is related to various senses. Information in this store only stays for a very short time... only a small amount will be passed onto the short-term memory store. 
The capacity of the short term memory is limited to around seven times, and only lasts for six to 12 seconds. Rehearsals play key roles in determining what traits get to go to the long term memory store.
In the long term memory store, there is a vast, limitless storehouse of information. However, psychologists do not specifically know how much information can be stored there. The material is not an exact replica of events or facts, but is stored in a outlined form. Memories can even be distorted. 

Baddeley and Hitch (1974): the working model of memory

The working model of memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

This view challenges the multi-store model of memory in the sense that it challenges the fact the short term memory store is a SINGLE store.
The central executive is a sort of controlling system that monitors the operations of other components, called slave systems. It's sort of like the CEO of a company. The central executive (that is, short term memory store) has a limited capacity and is modality free, so any sensory information can be processed here.
There are two important jobs of the central executive, called the AUTOMATIC LEVEL and the SUPERVISORY ATTENTIONAL LEVEL.
- The automatic level: based on habits and is usually controlled by stimuli from the environment. This includes daily and routine procedures and tasks.
- The supervisory attentional level: deals with emergencies and makes new strategies where the old ones are no longer applicable... when a car is zooming and about to hit your bicycle!
People focus a lot on automatic processing in their daily lives. 

The episodic buffer: acts as a temporary and passive display store until the information is needed - like a t.v. screen. Imagine when you try to remember a scenery that you saw a long time ago - this will appear through the episodic buffer.

Phonological loop: divided into two components - the ARTICULATORY CONTROL SYSTEM and hte PHONOLOGICAL STORE. 
- Articulatory control system: is the inner voice. It holds your information in a verbal form. This happens when you try to remember lyrics and repeat them to yourself. This articulatory loop holds words ready as you prepare to speak.
- The phonological store: the inner ear. It holds speech-based material in phonological forms. 
A memory trace can last only 1.5 to 2 seconds if its not refreshed by the articulatory control system. The phonological store can only receive information directly from sensory memory in the form of auditory material, from long term memory into the form of verbal information, and from the articulatory control system.

The visuospatial sketchpad: inner eye. Deals with visual and spatial information from either sensory memory or long term memory.

Evidence of the working memory model: the prediction of the working memory model is that there will be impairment in the concurrent task when a dual-task technique is being used. (Multi-tasking). The findings of the dual-task study show that although there was an impairment in the efficiency of the subject, it was not catastrophic. The researchers take this as evidence that the short term memory has more than one unitary store, and that a total breakdown of working memory demands more pressure than the concurrent task in the experiment.

Evaluation of this model: working memory plays a big role in learning in childhood years. Pickering and Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children and found that there was an improvement in the performance in working memory capacity from the ages of 5-15 years. Holmes et al (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacities and childrens' maths attainment in relation to age. As a result, they found that older children could have their maths performance significantly predicted by their performance on the visual patterns test. According to Eysenck (1988) there is evidence that individual differences in intelligence can depend on difference in working memory quality.

-Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Cognitive process: memory
There are two general categories for long-term memory. These are explicit memories and implicit memories. Explicit memories can be retrieved consciously, while implicit memories cannot. There are also two sub-categories within each category. In explicit memory, there are semantic memories (factual memories) and episodic memories (memory based on personal experiences). In implicit memory, there are emotional memories and procedural memories (memories based on habit, repetition and skills).

Eric Kandel found (through animal research) that explicit memories are affected by the hippocampus of the brain. The hippocampus is responsible for explicit memory formation. Case studies of humans who have hippocampal damage and invasive studies on animals have revealed that a damaged hippocampus results in the inability to form explicit memories. However, the interesting fact is that emotional memories are unaffected. Therefore, memories that are intertwined with an emotion tend to stick.

On the other hand, researchers have also found that the amygdala is responsible for the storage of emotional memories. LeDoux, a neuroscientist, claims that certain memories have emotional significance and this may be why memories that are based on emotional events are easier to recall. Something to consider: people with PSTD might have problems forgetting a traumatic event because the event is strongly tied with an experienced emotion. Researchers recently found that damage in the prefrontal cortex of the brain makes memories hard to eliminate, and makes controlling emotional outbursts a difficulty.

-Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

US psychologist Jerome Bruner states that children of any culture learn the basics of culture through schooling and daily interactions with people of their culture. These people can include: parents, grandparents, friends, peers, siblings and teachers. These people are important in the transmission of knowledge (whether the transmission of knowledge is informal or formal, doesn't matter).
There was once an hypothesis that assumed that cognitive processes such as memory follow universal laws, and humans around the globe all process information in the same way. Following this logic, this meant that memory tests could be applied globally, and that researchers could expect the same results (regardless of culture). However, we now know that this was not the case. When Western researchers performed tests with participants in non-Western countries, they found that the results were different - they did poorly. Cross-cultural psychologists know now that if you want to test memory in a group of people, you need to consider the insight and culture of that group.

Cole and Scribner (1974) aimed to investigate the memory strategies in different cultures. They compared the recall ability of a series of words in the US and among Kpelle people in Liberia.
The researchers knew that they couldn't use the same list of words for the Kpelle people as they did with those in the US due to the difference in culture, so they started by observing everyday cognitive activities in Liberia.
This helped them develop relevant memory tasks. They also used Kpelle college students to act as researchers because they spoke the same language as the participants. They also made sure that the words that were used in the experiment were familiar to the Kpelle people.
In spite of these precautions, Cole and Scribner were amazed at the results of this experiment. There were striking cultural differences in the way that the Kpelle people went about remembering and solving the presented problems.
Cole and Scribner asked Liberian children from different age groups to recall as many items as possible from four categories: utensils, clothes, tools and vegetables. It was expected that the older children would recall more items after practice, but researchers found that this wasn't the case UNLESS the children had attended school for several years. The non-schooled children did not improve their recall ability after the age of 10. They remembered around 10 items the first time. After 15 trials, they only remembered two more items. Children who had attended schools learned the lists as rapidly as the children in the US have - they even used the same strategy to recall: based on categorizing similarity of objects.
When the data was analyzed, the researchers found that the illiterate children did not use the strategy "chunking", where bits of information were grouped into larger units. They also found that the Kpelle people did not use "rehearsal", as the position of the word in the list did not have an effect on the rate of recall.
After this, Cole and Scribner presented the items in a meaningful sequence, as a part of a story. This is called a narrative. The illiterate children were able to recall objects easily, and even chunked them according to the roles they played in the story.
Memory studies like this invite reflection. Even though the ability to remember is universal, the strategies that are used to remember are not. It's a problem that so many memory studies are associated with the formal schooling of the participant - especially when the participant has never attended school before. The conclusion is that people learn to remember in ways that are related to their cultures and everyday lives.

-Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is reliable

Vocabulary:

• Reconstructive memories: the tendency that people have to try to make/recall a coherent memory - to try to make sense of the world
• Repression: the causation of "forgetting" - a definition by Sigmund Freud. According to Freud, people who have experienced intense emotional and anxiety provoking events may use defense mechanisms such as repression to take these painful memories and send them to the unconscious area of the mind. They "forget" about these events.
• Serial reproduction: when a person reproduces the original story, a second person reproduces the first person's reproduction, a third person reproduces the reproduction of the second person... on and on.
• Ecological validity: the artificiality of a study - can the findings be applied outside the lab?

Empirical testing of the reliability of memory:
Frederic Bartlett (1932) The War of the Ghosts memory experiment: 
Frederic Bartlett argued that memory is reconstructive and schemas affect memory recall. He also demonstrated the role of culture in schema processing with this experiment.
Method: serial reproduction of a story from a foreign culture. Around six or seven reproductions are made in total. This method is meant to duplicate the process by which rumors and gossip are spread, or how legends are passed on through generations.
Procedure: The story used by Bartlett is an American Indian story called The War of the Ghosts. 
a. Asked participants to read the story two times, without telling them what the aim of the study was
b. 15 minutes pass, and Bartlett asks the participants to reproduce the story from memory
c. Tells them to reproduce the story a few more times once they moved to his laboratory
Results:
a. Each participant's memory of an experience changed with each reproduction
b. The story became shorter - the original story was 329 words, but the 6, 7th reproductions were a mere 180 words
c. The story remained coherent no matter how it deviated from the original piece
d. The story became more conventional - it retained only the details that could be assimilated to the shared past experiences and cultural backgrounds of the participants
Interpretation:
a. It was difficult for people from Western cultures to reproduce this story because of the difference in culture
b. The people reconstructed their pasts trying to fit it into existing schemas
c. The more complicated the story, the more likely that it is to be distorted
d. People have an effort for meaning - they try to find a familiar pattern in their own experiences
= As a result, this study shows that FAKE memories can be made. Memory is not always reliable. More experiments and studies that test the reliability of memory are on pages 81-85.
Eyewitness testimonies are often incorrect - a good study to focus on as well.

-Explain the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

Neuro-imaging techniques allow researchers to obtain images of brain functioning and structures. This knowledge that is gathered is used to understand the relationship between cognitive processes and behavior.
PET scans:
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a scanning device/method that can measure crucial functions in the brain, such as glucose consumption and blood flow. PET scans can even detect brain tumors and memory disorders due to Alzheimer's disease. The use of new technology has helped neuroscientists make methods to detect the signs of Alzheimer's disease so early that patients may not even have thought something to be wrong themselves.
MRI scans:
Magnetic resonance imaging is a technology that provides 3D pictures of brain structures. The MRI and fMRI work by detecting the changes of the use of oxygen in blood. When an area in a brain is more active, it uses more oxygen. This is used to see what areas are active when people perform cognitive tasks such as reading and problem solving. (These scanners can even be used in marketing research, to detect which areas are active when you look at a picture of your favorite brand.)
These technologies make it possible for researchers to observe brain damage - like the case of HM. It's also possible to relate this to cognitive functioning, such as with memory. However, the brain is a very complex organ and not totally understood. Just because one part of the brain is active when it performs a particular cognitive process does not mean that cause-effect relationships can be established between specific brain structures and human preference for things (like brands).