Potential Exam Questions

Biological Level of Analysis (SAQ)

1. Explain how determinism relates to the biological perspective.
2. Explain why the reductionist approach is regarded as controversial.
3. Describe one study from the biological perspective and discuss how this study has contributed to our understanding of behavior.
4. Outline one strength and one limitation of the biological perspective in explaining one psychological or social question.
5. Explain how one hormone influences human behavior.
6. Explain how evolution has influenced human behavior.
7. Explain how one or more neurotransmitters affect human behavior.
8. Explain how one study demonstrates localisation of the brain.
9. Distinguish between localisation and lateralisation.

(LAQ)

1. Describe one study from the biological perspective and discuss how this study has contributed to our understanding of behavior.
2. Evaluate two research methods that are used in the biological perspective.
3. Discuss ethical considerations related to genetic influences of behavior.
4. Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the BLA, with reference to at least one study.
5. Discuss the use of brain imaging technoloqies to investigate the relationship between biological factors and behavior.

Cognitive Level of Analysis (SAQ)

1. Outline one assumption of the cognitive perspective. Identify one key concept based on the assumption outlined above and explain their relationship.
2. Explain how one key concept from the cognitive perspective helps us understand behavior.
3. Explain one theoretical explanation of human behavior in the cognitive perspective.
4. Describe one study that investigated the schema theory.
5. Explain cognitive dissonance.
6. Outline two principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.
7. Outline how emotion affects one cognitive process.
8. Describe one ethical consideration related to one research study at the cognitive level.
9. Explain how one biological factor can affect a cognitive process.

(LAQ)

1. Assess the extent to which one model of information has helped in understanding cognitive processes.

2. Explain the extent to which free will and determinism relate to the cognitive perspective.

3. To what extent do social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process?

4. To what extent is one cognitive process reliable?

Social Cultural Level of Analysis (SAQ)

1. Describe one theory that is relevant to the social learning theory.
2. Describe one theory that is relevant to the social identity theory.
3. Outline two errors in attribution.
4. Describe one theory or study on the formation of stereotypes.
5. Explain one compliance technique.
6. Explain why one particular method has been utilised in the socio-cultural level of analysis.
7. Distinguish between emic and etic.
8. Explain factors that influence conformity.
9. With reference to a study, explain conformity.
10. Discuss the use of technology in investigating the relationship between cognitive factors and behavior.

(LAQ)

1. Using empirical studies, explain two research studies that were employed by psychologists in the socio-cultural level of analysis.
2. Evaluate one or more applications of one theory in the socio-cultural level of analysis.
3. Discuss factors influencing conformity.
4. Outline and evaluate schema theory with reference to studies.
5. Evaluate social identity theory with reference to relevant studies.
6. Discuss factors influencing conformity.
7. Discuss the reliability of one cognitive process.

Internal Assessment: Writing Your Introduction

An example / template of a first-draft introduction: Craik and Tulving, 1975
HL Introduction

At any given time, humans are overwhelmed with information: sensory information (such as smells, sights and sounds), information from fellow humans, or input from mass media. While we have grown accustomed to subconsciously filtering and interpreting the constant input of information, some pieces of information are remembered better than others. What determines the ability to remember those pieces of information? It could be the importance of the information, relative to the person, or perhaps the degree of depth in which the information is processed. The discipline that studies how individuals process and remember information is within cognitive psychology: the study of the mental processes of people.

Craik & Tulving (1975) attempted to understand how some information is recalled with more ease than others. The study primary came into being in an attempt to falsify the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory (1967), and support Craik & Lockhart's levels-of-processing model (1972). The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory proposes that human memory follows a sequence of three stages: sensory memory to short-term memory to long-term memory. Craik and Tulving thus attempted theorize that memory retention was greatly affected by the depth of processing performed by the individual, rather than chronology. The aim of their 1975 study was to test different levels of processing in subjects to investigate whether depth of processing was involved in memory retention.

In the experiment, the information was presented to the subjects in the form of simple two-syllable nouns; before being shown the words, subjects were asked questions that would require a certain type of processing. The three different levels of processing that the subjects would use were: phonemic or structural ( - a shallow level of processing), and semantic processing ( - a deep level of processing). The phonemic level of processing would be used by subjects when the given question was related to the way a word sounds, structural levels of processing would be used when given questions concerned the physical appearance of the word, and semantic levels of processing would be used when questions inquired on the context the word could be used in. Craik and Tulving hypothesized that words processed via deeper levels (i.e. semantic processing) would take longer to answer but yield a more elaborate memory trace and higher recall performance.

For this study, the aim is to see if information is more easily retained when it is processed through "deeper processing" or "shallow processing". Use of the same levels of processing as Craik and Tulving will be utilized to test the memory-retention in subjects.

Internal Assessment: Montemayor and Eissen (1977)

Hereafter, you will find my original work that I had created in preparation for my internal assessment. Please understand that copying material without giving credit to the source is known as plagiarism and a form of theft. In addition, I recommend you not use this post as the basis for your internal assessment as I am only a student myself, and calling me a reliable source may be debatable in the eyes of teachers and IBO. I am merely posting this as a guideline and example for internal assessments for HL Psychology, so please only use it as one. Thank you and I hope this helps you! - R. B. (Admin)

Topic: Developmental Psychology
Link of original document by Montemayor and Eissen here.
Hypothesis presented in the study: "it is hypothesized that young children primarily conceive of and describe themselves in terms of such concrete characteristics as their physical appearance and possessions, while adolescents conceive of themselves more abstractly and describe themselves in more psychological and interpersonal terms."
What design did Montemayor and Eissen use, and why: Montemayor and Eissen used a controlled laboratory experiment-method because it was the most appropriate design to use for the particular experiment. The nature of a laboratory experiment allows the researchers to control the environment as well as the subjects.
How was the sample selected and how might this influence the study: 136 males and 126 females were selected from four different grade-level schools from suburban, midwestern and university communities. The subjects were either in grades 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12. The subjects were all exclusively white and had average or above average intelligence levels. Almost all of the subject's parents were in classes I and II (Hoolingshead's two factor index of social positions). The focus group may influence the study as the results will not be relevant to the self-perceptions of people of other ethnicities and cultures.
What controls were established? There were no controls other than the students being divided according to their age groups. They were all administered the same test, first created by Burgental & Zelen in 1950, called the Twenty Statements Test. There were 20 spaces were they were directed to defined themselves.
What is the independent and dependent variable? The independent variable is the age group of the subject, and the dependent variable is their quality of self-perception.
Describe the procedures employed by the researcher: Montemayor and Eissen instructed their subjects to complete the Twenty Questions test (question: "Who Am I?") and then had two trained undergraduates to score the answers provided by the subjects according to Gordon's (1968) 30-category scoring system. The 30 categories were those that aimed to classify each and any answer that was written down by the subjects. (E.g: sex, age, name, racial or national heritage, religion, kinship role, occupational role, student role, political affiliation, social status, territoriality or citizenship, membership in actual interacting group, existential or individuating, etc...)
What type of data was gathered? How was it or how could have it been analyzed? Data was gathered within aforementioned 30 categories. The data was processed by the researchers in a way that it was laid out in a table as the percentage of subjects at each age using the category at least once (i.e. quantitative data). Chi-squared tests were also performed due to the large data sets. The researchers explained their data in the form of linear and curvilinear lines.
What are the research findings? Conclusions were made that support the GENERAL hypothesis. The researchers were able to conclude that:
a) The concrete-to-abstract change is not a simple linear one. However, this is most likely because some of the categories can be considered to be either concrete or abstract. The changes between concrete-to-abstract self-perceptions from childhood to adolescence primarily involve the use of concrete description by adolescents rather than the use of abstract self-perceptions by the children.
b) Children in the study primarily described themselves in terms of concrete, objective categories such as their address and physical appearance, while adolescents used more abstract and subjective descriptions such as personal beliefs and interpersonal characteristics.
What types of problems could there have been with the research? Because it was not required that each subject write down all 20 answers, where could have been an uneven amount of data distributed among the age-groups.
What changes could be suggested for future research? Make it compulsory for them to fill out all 20 answers as long as the subjects are willing to participate in the experiment.

CLA: Further Evaluation of Principles

• Principles in the cognitive level of analysis:

1. Human beings are information processors -- mental processes guide behavior:
   - The mind can be viewed as a complex machine, like an intelligent, information processing computer. The brain is the hardware, while the mental processing that takes place in the brain is the software. Mental processing is performed in order to make sense of the world. There are ways in which people can make mistakes when they process information, such as by the influence of schemata. (Schemata are mental frameworks developed by previous experiences that influence the way future events and situations are perceived.) In addition, the mind is able to fabricate completely false memories, which can often make our mental processes fallible.
   According to the cognitive level of analysis, information input to the mind occurs via bottom-up processing -- from the sensory systems of the organism to the mind.
2. The mind can be studied scientifically, with the use of developing theories and scientific technology / scientific research methods: New theories that are often developed in the cognitive level of analysis can serve as an amendment for old theories, or can disprove old theories as false. This principle of the cognitive level of analysis is debatable because the research of scientific research methods in studying human behavior means that the studies often lack ecological validity. Cognition should be studied both in the laboratory environment as well as in a daily context.
3. Cognitive processes are influenced by both social and cultural factors: Frederic Bartlett (the cognitive psychologist known for coining the term "schema" with his 1932 experiment, War of the Ghosts) was the first to suggest this principle. He observed the effect of cultural cognitive frameworks on memory (aka cultural schemata on memory) and found that the memories were greatly influenced by the subjects' already-possessed frameworks of thinking. He found that people had problems remembering details from stories that are from different cultures. Bartlett demonstrated in his research that memory is not like a tape-recorder, simply recording what is"there", but is a reconstructive process. The reconstructing of memory for recall is why memory has the tendency to be distorted. 

2.1-2.3 BLA Outcomes

Biological Level of Analysis

2.1 Physiology and Behavior

First of all, the biological level of analysis argues that there are physiological factors that affect behavior in organisms. It should be noted, however, that physiology is not the only factor that impacts behavior. The environment and cognition may interact with biological systems and affect physiology. Biology can affect cognition, and cognition can equally affect biology. (The two are bidirectional). The biological level of analysis takes on a reductionist view - they believe that behavior is caused by biological factors (e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.) This reductionist view is often criticized for being overly-simplistic for explaining behavior.

<NATURE V.S. NURTURE EVENT>… "Is behavior a result of biological factors or environment?"

(IB psychology takes on an interactionist approach: meaning they do not rely solely on either biological or environmental factors)

- Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis

1) Behavior can be innate because it is genetically based (What you do naturally, on instinct. This is a result of evolution)

2) Animal research can provide insight into human behavior. This is why a lot of research is done on animals.

3) There are biological correlates to behavior - hormones, proteins, metabolism and neurotransmitters are all known to affect the behavior of a person.

               

- Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (through theories or studies)

1) There are biological correlates of behavior: Newcomer at al (1999) performed an experiment on the role of the stress hormone cortisol on verbal declarative memory. Cortisol is a hormone that is known to interfere with your memory. He collected a total of 51 people for an experiment that tested memory and cognitive functions before and after treatment of high doses or low doses of cortisol, or inactive substances (=control substance). As a result of this experiment, Newcomer et al observed that memory impairment happened only in the individuals who were treated with high doses of cortisol, after only four days of exposure. However, the researchers also found out that this memory loss was only temporary as after a week of having a wash-out period, all the subjects’ memory performances returned to their untreated levels. This experiment shows that there are biological correlates to behavior – in this case, cortisol being a hormone that affects the memory performance of an individual.

More on this experiment at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/06/990617072302.htm

(2) Animal research can provide insight into human behavior: This means that researchers use animals to study human physiological processes, because it is assumed that biological processes in animals are the same, or similar as in humans. One important reason for using animals is that there is a lot of research where humans cannot be used for ethical reasons (such as hurting the subject). The use of animal research in order to provide insight into human behavior can be demonstrated in the studies of Martinez and Kezner (1991), where an experiment was carried out studying the role of neurotransmitters in learning and memory. (This is an experiment that used various chemicals to test acetylcholine, which is responsible for memory retention.) The mice’s brains were altered and observed – the results were generalized to humans as well.

(3) Human behavior innate, and thus genetically based: Researchers interested in the genetic origin of behavior often use twin studies so they can compare one twin with the other on a variable such as intelligence, depression or anorexia nervosa. Bouchard et al (1990) who performed the Minnesota twin study, a longitudinal study investigating the relative role of genes in IQ. He found that IQ was affected by environment, but also have genetic influences as well. This shows that some behavior (such as a person’s intelligence) is innate (such as in one’s genetic material).

               

- Discuss how any why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis

- Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis

Laboratory experiments: At the biological level of analysis, lab experiments are commonly used to establish cause and affect relationships between the variables that are being studied. A key point at this level of analysis is the use of animal experiments as well as human experiments. When researchers want to test the degree of changes to physiology (i.e. by injection of neurochemicals or hormones) or to test the effectiveness of a new medication, lab experiments are used. Ethical considerations should always be made; when the researchers are testing new medications, the results are unpredictable - the patient's health and well-being cannot be guaranteed. The patients should be fully aware of the study they are taking part in. Their personal identities should also be protected. Using ‘codes’ or listing the patients as ‘anonymous’ will help protect the patient’s identities. Laboratory experiments are useful because they allow the researchers to make accurate conclusions and establish clear cause and effect relationships.

Case Studies: The case study is another way to carry out research on human participants, as well as on animals. Instead of causing some kind of change to a person’s physiology, researchers can take advantage of naturally occurring irregularities (e.g. SEVERE brain damage or long term drug use) by obtaining detailed information about the participant’s condition. As this approach is mostly descriptive, there is relatively little harm that can be done to participants. This means that there are less ethical concerns that in lab experiments – the irregularities are present before the researcher studies the subjects. The most important ethical concerns for case studies are the depth of information that the researcher has access to and the researchers' steps to protect subject anonymity. The depth of information affects the subjects because the information has the potential to affect their daily lives. For example, if they are notified by the researcher that they have a mental disability, this could harm the subject’s self-esteem or confidence. Presenting or revealing the true names of the participants could harm their chances of living normal lives – getting jobs, for example. Thus, using pseudonyms or ‘anonymity’ is an acceptable way to protect the subject’s privacy.

- Explain one study of localization of function of the brain

Paul Broca (1861) was a psychologist who carried out a longitudinal study of a specific case where a patient was unable to speak, but could understand conversations. This patient was named Tan for he was unable to say anything except for the word 'tan'. Although he was mute, he was able to understand simple conversations. After Tan's death, Broca performed an autopsy and found that the left frontal lobe of Tan's brain was severely damaged. Broca came to the conclusion that the brain was localized - specific parts of the brain performed particular tasks that it was specialised to perform. Broca hypothesized that the left frontal lobe of the brain was responsible for tasks such as producing speech (locution) as well as deducing meaning from complex language, emotions, and analysis of syntax. Broca was one of the first psychologists to suggest that the brain was localized.

- Explain, using examples, functions of two hormones in human behavior

Hormones are a class of chemicals that affect behavior. They are produced by the glands that make up a system separate from the nervous system called the endocrine system. Unlike neurotransmitters, they are released into the bloodstream so they take a longer amount of time to produce changes in behavior, but are longer-lasting than neurotransmitters.

                1- Oxytocin is a hormone that is created by the hypothalamus after being stimulated by the pituitary gland. It is a hormone that is released by touches and hugs, and is associated with bonding between a mother and her child as well as between lovers. As a hormone, oxytocin plays a role by inducing labor contractions and lactation. Oxytocin is thought to change the brain signals that are related to social recognition via facial expression in the part of the brain that is responsible for processing emotional stimuli (that is, the amygdala). When oxytocin is injected into a healthy adult brain, the fear regulatory circuits are affected and there is an increase in trust and generosity of that person, so oxytocin is often called the love cocktail. Those who suffer from social anxiety (that is, the inability to trust) might therefore benefit from injection of oxytocin.

                2- Melatonin is another hormone that researchers think may help those with insomnia or jet lag. The production of melatonin is stimulated by darkness and is inhibited by light. Therefore, melatonin levels are high during the night (peaks in the middle of night) and low during the day (gradually decreases during the morning). Therefore, as winter approaches and the days become shorter, this means that we are inclined to feel more tired earlier.

Melatonin is a hormone that corresponds with the circadian rhythm (the internal 24 hour clock that we have in our bodies) and it is suggested that taking melatonin early in the evening helps one's ability to fall asleep. [However, if levels of melatonin are TOO high, this could lead to lethargy and sleepiness: for example, the short days of autumn and winter are known to affect the circadian rhythm of some people and cause a form a depression. This depression is called SAD - seasonal affective disorder. SAD is seen often in European countries with short hours of light during the day in winter, such as in Scandinavia. ]

- Explain, using examples the effects of neurotransmission on human behavior

Nerve cells, also called neurons, are the building blocks of behavior. These neurons send electrochemical messages to the brain so people can respond to stimuli that is either external (environmental) or internal (from internal changes of the body). The messages that are sent are sent by a method called neurotransmission. When an electrical impulse travels from the body of a nerve cell, it releases neurotransmitters which then cross synapses between nerve cells. Neurotransmitters are natural chemical messengers that transmit information from one nerve cell to another nerve cell. (The neurotransmitters are stored in the nerve cell's terminal buttons). After it crosses the nerve synapse, the neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the post-synaptic membrane and the message of the neurotransmitter is passed on. They can affect the mood, memory, sexual arousal or mental illness of a person. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for the development of memory, and serotonin is a neurotransmitter that can make a person sleepy or emotional.

- Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

Page 46, brain plasticity: Before the 1960s, it was believed that the makings and the functionality of the brain was completely based on biological principles. However, Hubel and Wiesel (1965) found that the brain is equally stimulated and affected by the environment of which it is in. Hubel and Wiesel found that environmental enrichment can modify the brain (cerebral cortex, specifically). The brain is constantly changing as a result of experience and environment throughout the lifespan.

For example, brain plasticity is the brain's ability to change in order to enhance or increase learning or experience. The neural connections are remade and the structure of the brain is changed. It changes due to the challenges of the environment – the brain adapts. Appropriate learning and experience at certain times can increase the density of neural connections, which in turn allow the brain to be capable to learn EVEN MORE. This rebranching of neurons is called dendritic branching.

Rozenwig and Bennett (1972): researchers placed two rats in different environments to study the effect of either enrichment or deprivation on the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex. The rat with a lot of toys to play with (thus, the “enrichment” group) was found to have denser neural connections in the cerebral cortex. The rat with no toys had no particular thickness of neurons in the cerebral cortex. Also, the frontal lobes (which have to do with thinking) were heavier in the rats in the stimulating (enriching) environment. Therefore, we can infer that environment is a large factor that affects physiology.

*In other studies it was found that the thickest cortexes are found within rats that were placed in stimulating environments along with OTHER rats to interact with.

- Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior

Humans themselves are able to change the functionality of the brain, as it was found in a study by Richard Davidson (2004). Eight Buddhist monks who have been meditating for a long period of their lives, and average adults who have trained in meditation for 100 hours were told to meditate on love and compassion. Using a PET scan, Davidson found that the levels of gamma waves produced were increased in all subjects during meditation. After meditating, he found that the monks' gamma wave production did not end, while the average subjects stopped producing gamma waves. (They had meditated on compassion for more than 10,000 hours in order to gain the rank of adept). Also, the gamma-wave area was seen to be larger in the monks than in the volunteers. Davidson argues that meditation can have significant long term effects on the brain and how it processes emotions. Therefore the brain can adapt to stimulation, either from external sources (such as the environment) or internal sources (such as cognition).

- Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behavior

Modern technology is used often in neuropsychology because it allows researchers to understand and study the active brain. This in turn allows researchers to study the localization functions of the brain. Researches before modern technology often included invasive studies on animals, because animal researches allowed the brain to be understood. However, these invasive techniques involved scarring and ablation of brain tissue and parts of the brain, so there were extreme ethical concerns with them. The behavior of animals before and after the lesioning was compared and studied. In case of lesioning and scarring, the potential harm to animals cannot be determined, and damage that is caused to the animals cannot be reversed. This is a big ethical concern for animal research. The animals may feel pain as well. This is why modern imaging technologies such as EEG, PET and fMRI scans are popular and ethical ways of studying the brain and behavior.

The EEG is used by modern researchers to study the brain. The EEG is a printout that shows 'brainwaves'. The electrical charges of neural activity are shown in these printouts. However, the EEG is not helpful for the fact that it does not show what is happening in deeper brain regions, or the active functions of the brain.

PET scans monitor glucose metabolism in the brain. A patient who is getting a PET scan is injected a harmless dose of radioactive glucose, and its radioactive particles are detected by the PET scan as it transfuses throughout the brain. This scan has been used to detect tumors, changes in Alzheimer's and comparison of healthy brains and brains with mental disorders. Gur et al found (1995) found more active metabolism in the brain centers that control violence in men, than in women. The largest advantage to a PET is that it can record current activity, such as thinking.

fMRI scans provide 3D photos of brain structures by using magnetic fields and radio waves. It shows actual brain activity and can show active parts of the brain when it is engaged in behavior. They have high resolutions and thus are easy to study and carry out.

2.2 Genetics and Behavior

- Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis:

The biological principles that define the biological level of analysis are: 1) that all behavior is correlated to biological factors 2) animal researches can help researchers understand human behavior 3) human behavior can be innate because it is genetically based. The reason that we know that behavior has biological correlates is because we have found that certain hormones and neurotransmitters can affect one's mood or behavior. We know that animal researches are helpful to us to understand our own physiology because brain structures are very similar across different species. Finally, we know that behavior can be innate because evolution has caused us to have intuitive knowledge and certain instincts, such as being hungry.

- Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research:

In the study of intelligence and inheritance of intelligence, Scarr and Weinberg (1977) as well as Horn et al (1979) studied parents who raised both adopted and natural children. It was assumed that all the children involved in the study were brought up in the same environment, with the same upbringing with the same parents. Therefore, it was also hypothesized that any difference between the parent-child IQ correlations for adopted and natural children should be attributable to genetics (ie genetic makeup or DNA). However, the researchers found no significant correlations between the IQ of the biological parents and the adopted children. This indicates that intelligence could largely be affected by environment, rather than by nature because the adopted children came from poor backgrounds with parents who had considerably low IQ scores, while their adoptive parents were wealthy, white and middle class parents with high IQ levels. Therefore, this study actually contradicts the biological principle that 'there is always a biological correlate to behavior' because this study supports the theory that intelligence is affected by environmental factors rather than biological factors.

- Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis:

At the biological level of analysis, particularly when studying genetics and behavior, adoption studies are performed often to study and directly compare genetic and environmental influences of behavior. Adoptive studies are studies where researchers try to determine if genetics influence an adopted child's behavior (in relation to their biological parents) or environment influences a child's behavior (thus the adoptive or foster family). Other research methods on the biological genetic level are twin studies and family studies. Twin and family studies generally study how genetics (such as DNA) can influence behavior. Some ethical considerations to make related to these types of genetic-biological researches is to make sure none of the subjects are directly influenced by the study's results. If a child who is adopted, but does not know so is involved in the study for adoptive studies, then the research should be covert. If this child were to find out that he/she was adopted without any prior explanation, then it would naturally come as a shock to the child. The emotional or internal burden that is a result of this would be a severe ethical concern.

- Discuss the extent to which genetics influence behavior

Genetic research in humans is largely based on study types called correlational studies. This is when researchers look at how different variables can co-vary. Therefore, correlational studies establish new relationships between variables, without the researcher manipulating any independent variables as they would do in an experiment. This is why, unlike experiments, no cause and effect of variables and factors can be determined in genetic research. Through these studies, such as twin studies, family studies and adoption studies, researchers are able to study the influences of genetics and the environment and determine the extent to which genetics influences one's behavior. Researchers have concluded that genetics does not completely dominate behavior, but many behaviors are influenced in various ways by genetic-makeup.

- Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior

Evolution affecting behavior is one principle that is considered in the biological level of analysis. Darwin's theory of natural selection is one evolutionary explanation of behavior. Darwin states that members of a species (organisms) who have characteristics which better suit the environment in which they live will be more likely to breed and pass on their traits. This leads to evolutionary psychology, a field of psychology that suggests that as genes are mutated, the advantageous genes are passed on through the process of natural selection. Dan Fessler of the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) carried out research on the 'disgust' impulse in pregnant women. He found that the emotion of disgust has allowed our ancestors to survive long enough to produce offspring, who then passed on the same tendencies (the impulse of disgust) to us. According to Fessler, many of the diseases that are most dangerous to humans are food-borne, and this is why evolution and adaption has caused people (pregnant women especially) to have a disgust-impulse towards food - to diminish the risk of illnesses and infections. Overall, Fessler suggests that the view of disgust is a protection against disease.

- Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior

Researches of human genetics focus and identify particular genes that are involved in hereditary diseases. These types of researches pose risks to participants because there is a link between genetic heritage and people's lives. Sometimes the genetic information is problematic for participants or their families (such as discovering a mental illness) and it can be stigmatizing and affect people's abilities to get jobs and insurance. In any study, participants should always understand their privacy and confidentiality will be protected, and any genetic information that is derived will be obtained as a part of the study. The aims and methods of the studies should be explained in full detail to participants, and they should sign a consent paper showing that they understand. Fully anonymizing the samples of the genetic information would protect the identity of the participants. 

2.3 Integrative Look at Criminal Behavior

 Today, many psychologists recognize that criminal behavior is very complex. It results from a combination of risk factors (which involve both biological and environmental factors) which interact and aggravate one another. The more risk factors that are present, the more likely one is going to engage in criminal behavior. There are several theories that suggest a specific root of criminal behavior. These roots are genetics, brain abnormalities and neurochemical imbalances.

Hutchings and Mednick (1975) studied adoption cases and found that if both the biological and the adoptive fathers had criminal records, then 36% of the sons also had a criminal record. If the biological father was the only one who had a criminal record, it dropped to 21% and if only the adoptive father had a criminal record, the rate of the child also having a criminal record dropped to 11%. When neither fathers had criminal records, the rate of sons having criminal records was 10%. This shows the importance of environmental factors, combined with genetic factors that determine whether or not one will hold a criminal record. A limitation to this experiment is the fact that children are often placed with adoptive families who are similar to their biological families. Some children were also placed into adoptive homes long after their birth, which means the early-experiences the child had with the biological parents could largely affect his/her behavior. It should be noted here that "criminal behavior" refers to even the smallest of crimes to the largest of crimes - from tax evasion to first degree murder. This word is used in such a general sense that results of studies that use the word "criminal behavior" could be inaccurate.

The brain is involved in emotion making of a person, and thus can be attributed to one's behavior. Emotions are controlled by the limbic system in the brain, and decision making takes place in the frontal lobe. Therefore, if there is an impairment of the pathways between the amygdala (which is responsible for emotional responses) and the frontal lobe,  the individual with the impairment might have difficulty in moderating emotional reactions. This will make social relationships difficult because the individual is not able to develop empathy or feelings of guilt, and thus acts more capriciously, without regard for the consequences.

Gender is also an interesting aspect to crime. 90% of apprehended murderers were male, as well as 82% who were arrested for violent crime. This is because of the low levels of serotonin in men links to antisocial and impulsive behavior. The most important thing to remember about biological factors and crime is that these factors are not the only cause for criminal behavior. It is only when these factors are combined with social and cognitive risk factors that violence and criminal behavior will occur. 

4.1-4.2 SLA Outcomes

Sociocultural Level of Analysis

4.1 Sociocultural Cognition

•Outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis (for example, the social and cultural environment influences individual behavior; we want connectedness with, and a sense of belonging to, others; we construct our conceptions of the individual and social self).

One principal that defines the sociocultural level of analysis is the fact that humans are social animals and have a basic need to belong. Human behavior can only be fully understood when the social context the human is in is taken into account. Not only is the individual affected by a larger group, but the larger group is affected by the individual as well.

Culture is another principle that defines the sociocultural level of analysis because the beliefs that are deeply embedded in a culture the individual is in affects the way an individual perceives and understands things. The study of culture will help us further understand the effects it has on an individual's behavior, and appreciate the different in cultures. A third principle that defines the sociocultural level of analysis is that people have a social self as well as an individual self. This means that people behave differently when they are in social situations. Lastly, a principle that defines the sociocultural level of analysis is the fact that the way an individual perceives things are unlikely to change. A persons views of the world are unlikely to change because of prior experiences, such as culture.

• Explain how principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis may be demonstrated in research.

The goal is to see how people interact with each other, so the majority of research that is used for sociocultural research is qualitative. It is important to have subjects act in the most natural way that is possible, so experiments or studies that lack ecological validity are best to be avoided. Because we need subjects to act in a natural way, most of the studies used are naturalistic - as it really is. Participant observations, covert experiments, interviews and focus groups are used to collect and analyze data.

• Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the sociocultural level of analysis (for example, participant/naturalistic observation, interviews, case studies).
• Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the sociocultural level of analysis.

 Methods that are used in research for sociocultural level of analysis are; participant observations, interviews, focus groups… these are all the best ways to observe the way an individual interacts with others in a social setting because they help keep the research/studies as naturalistic as possible - as the way things really are. The best method to ensure that subjects act in a natural way is "participant observation". The experimenter or researcher places him or herself in a social setting for an extended period of time and observes the behavior of the subject in their natural environment. These participant observations can be either covert (where the participant doesn't know they're being observed) or overt (where the participant knows they are being observed.) When it is overt, there is a chance that the participant may not act naturally… they may change the way they act. Therefore, in overt observations, it is important for the subject to trust the researcher. The researcher needs to be nonjudgmental and try to see the world through the subject's eyes. Covert observations do not have the problem of the subject acting in an unnatural way, which is an advantage. Covert observations are used with groups that may be a potential threat if they knew they were being observed - such as groups involved in gangs and drug transactions. Covert observations record the participant’s information without their consent, which has the potential to be an ethical violation in terms of the participant's privacy concerns.

• Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior.

People are inclined to attribute dispositional (internal) and situational factors towards people's and their own behavior. People tend to attribute reasons to things that happen because they need reasons to understand why things happen. When people have reasons, they feel more stable and less tense, as opposed to when there are no reasons to explain why certain things have taken place. In the attribution theory, there are two types of factors people tend to use; dispositional factors, where people attribute reasons to the individual's personality, thoughts and opinions (For example, if a date was late to dinner: "does he actually hate me?" "he must think I'm boring…") and situational factors, where the individual's situation is held responsible for the happening (For example, if a date was late to dinner: "his alarm clock must be lagging." or "maybe a car ran over him?")

• Discuss two errors in attributions (for example, fundamental attribution error, illusory correlation, self‑serving bias).

Fundamental attribution error is an error in attribution in which people tend to overestimate the role of dispositional factors in an individual's behavior, and underestimate an individual's situational factors. People tend to gather information of other people by observing them and their actions, which usually leads to illogical conclusions. People tend to think of them-selves as adaptable and flexible, and easy to accept change. However, when people look at others, they do not have ENOUGH information to make a balanced decision, become a bit illogical and tend to attribute their behavior to disposition. (For example; "Oh, he's just that type of person")

Self-serving bias is an error in attribution that is similar to the fundamental attribution error. Self-serving bias is when people tend to accredit their successes to their own dispositional factors. On the other hand, people also tend to attribute their failures to situational factors. They do this to disassociate themselves from their own failures and to protect and stabilize our self-esteem. Thus, we can say that the attribution error, self-serving bias is a way for ourselves to protect ourselves.

• Evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies.

The social identity theory is a theory that assumes that people strive to improve their own self-images by creating a larger self-esteem, based on their personal identity or social identities. People can increase their self-esteem by being with successful in-groups, and doing so indicates the importance of social belonging. The social identity theory is also based on the process of social categorization… categorizing successful in-groups and in-group favoritism, as well as conformity to in-group norms. When people are in a group, they assume that it is their in-group, and all others outside of their in-group are a part of the out-group. They develop in-group favoritism and discrimination against the out-group. This favoring the in-group and discriminating the out-group is also known as "social comparison", which is a way that people maintain and heighten their self-esteem. Although the social identity theory is a good way to understand human behavior, it does not portray human behavior accurately because sometimes, our personal identity is stronger than our group identity, and we develop a sense of individualism. Also, the in-group will not always be the ONLY factor affecting a person's thoughts and in-group favoritism (behavior). It can also be a result of the environment that interacts with the "self"… cultural expectations and social norms also play a big role in the way an individual behaves.

• Explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior.

 A stereotype is defined as the social perception of an individual in terms of group-membership or physical attributes that are often exaggerated. It’s a generalization that is made of a group or somebody who belongs in a group, and the generalization can be either positive or negative, and it also affects the person who holds the stereotype.

Stereotype threats are threats that occur when one is in a situation where they might be judged. They feel that whatever they do may lead to the confirming of the stereotype… this is pressure to the individual. When the individual feels stress such as this, they actually perform at a lower or worse rate due to the emotional distress and pressure. When their performance at a certain task is undermined because of the pressure, the stereotype is confirmed by others that are present.

How does a stereotype form? A stereotype forms when people have a personal experience with a certain person or group, and also from gatekeepers (media, parents, other members in our culture). Personal experience with a person will be inevitably categorized, and then the experience will be generalized to the whole group that person is from. Gatekeepers help with the formation of stereotypes because the media and other gatekeepers spread these generalizations made.

Stereotypes are also a result of illusory correlation, or confirmation bias. An individual will find correlations between variables (when there is no correlation) in order to confirm a stereotype that was made of a person/group. Also, an individual is likely to ignore all facts/evidence that contradict the stereotype, and recognize all the evidence that supports it (confirmation bias).

4.2 Social and Cultural Norms

• Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.

Humans learn by observing others… this is called the social learning theory. By observational learning, people watch a model's behavior and copy (imitate) their behavior. Sometimes, the model attempts to have a direct effect on the student, but most of the time models do not attempt to have direct effect and rather tend to influence an individual's behavior without intending to do so. When the model tries to have a direct effect on the individual, it is usually a teacher/student or parent/child relationship. When the model is not aiming to influence an individual's behavior and does so unknowingly, it is usually through media. The social learning theory requires four steps…

                1) Attention: the model must grab the attention of an individual

                2) Retention: model's behavior must stay with the individual even after the model leaves

                3) Motor reproduction: the individual must replicate the behavior

                4) Motivation: the individual must be motivated to demonstrate whatever they learned.

Motivation is affected by many factors such as: (the observer seeing the) repetition of the model's behavior, liking the model, the rewards or punishments the model receives after the action, and identification with the model (if the model is alike to them or not, in terms of gender and age or even profession).

Albert Bandura performed a study studying the social learning theory, as well as the significance of the theory when using same-sex models.  There were 36 boys and 36 girls, all ages 3-6 years old. They were divided into groups by aggression, which the parents contributed to by saying whether their child was aggressive or not. To see if children would imitate behavior, one group was shown a video where an adult showed aggression toward a bobo doll. A second group was shown a video of a model that was assembling toys for 10 minutes, and the control group was not shown a model at all. (Some girl children saw women models, boy children saw male models… this is a factor that affects the social learning theory… "Likeness to the model" One the other hand, some kids saw videos of opposite sex models). After being shown the video, the children were placed in a room with toys. Then, shortly after, they were taken to another room that closely resembled the room that their model was in, with the same bobo doll. As a result of the experiment, the social learning theory was demonstrated in the study - children in the group that were shown the aggression video acted the same way, beating, punching and hitting the bobo doll in a similar way that their models had. The children in the aggression group were significantly more aggressive than those in the other groups - both verbally AND physically. As for the same-sex model theory, girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression and boys physical aggression. (Boys who saw the women models beating the bobo doll in the video also said "girls shouldn't do that"… thus kids were more likely to imitate same-sex models). This experiment has low ecological validity because it was carried out in a lab. Also, the aggression of models in the videos were not all standardized, so the children may have all seen different levels of aggression… this would affect how they imitated the models.

A study was carried in Canada that also tested the social learning theory: children were found to be significantly more aggressive in a village two years after television had been introduced to the town. This study shows that there may have been a link with aggression and television (children imitating models they see on TV)… but there could have been other factors that affected the violence in children as well.

• Discuss the use of compliance techniques

Compliance is from the direct pressure to respond to a request (the direct pressure is not necessarily evident to the subject.) There are many compliance techniques, and of these, the most major techniques are: DITF, FITD and reciprocity.

 The door in the face technique is a technique where a large request is made at first. The first request is so large that it is already determined by the requester that it will be turned down. After the subject turns the large request down, the requester then asks a smaller request, which will seem much easier to fulfill and agree to, compared to the first request. The smaller request is actually the request that the requester wanted the subject to comply to, and because the subject feels guilty for turning down the first request, they are likely to agree to the second request. They tend to do this because they feel as if the requested has had to concede his former request to a smaller one.

The foot in the door technique is a technique when a small commitment or request is made to an individual. Once the individual complies or agrees to fulfill the commitment/request, a related request is then asked of the individual. The second request is usually a larger request, but it is likely that the individual will agree because people tend to want to be committed and consistent in their beliefs. Thus, this is an effective technique when trying to get an individual to commit to a large request - you simply have them agree to a smaller (but related) request first, so they have a sense of commitment/ develop a sense of consistency.

Lastly, the reciprocity principle is a principle that ensures that what you give to others will always be returned to you in some form. When people do nice things for you, you are more likely to feel a need or an urge to do something nice back for them. This is reciprocity, and is an effective technique for compliance because it is a social norm - treat others the same way that they treat us.

• Evaluate research on conformity to group norms.

Conformity is when people feel they have to adjust their own thoughts, beliefs or opinions in order to be in agreement with a certain person or a group. People tend to want to conform to group norms because they have a need to belong in a social setting. Because people want to "belong" and want to avoid cognitive dissonance, they willingly or unwillingly change their ideas about things to be in agreement with an in-group.

• Discuss factors influencing conformity (for example, culture, groupthink, risky shift, minority influence).

 Culture and minority opinions are factors that influence how a person conforms. Culture is a large and impressive factor because the ideas that a person has because of the culture they are in controls their perception of reality. Some cultures are known to look at conformity as a positive attribute (such as Japan and east-Asian cultures) while Western cultures tend to frown upon conformity. This shows that the likelihood of an individual conforming to a group is directly affected by the culture the situation is set in. If you were in a culture that looks at conformity positively, you would be more likely to conform and "go with the flow", while if you were from a cultural background that treasures individualism, you would be less likely to conform.

Minority opinions can influence conformity within groups if they are CONSISTENT. Consistent minority opinions in a group show individuals that there ARE dissenting opinions and it the fact that the dissenting opinions are consistent shows that there is a commitment to an alternative view of things. Without minority opinions, a group's decision making process would be flawed. If there were no minority opinions, there would be groupthink within a group - where a group all agrees unanimously on a subject and alternative ideas are not suggested… thus the group is blinded by the optimism that their decisions and ideas will always be successful.

• Define the terms “culture” and “cultural norms”.

Culture can be defined as common rules that regulate interactions and behavior in a group, as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group. Culture is a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviors. There is a deep culture and a surface culture. Surface culture often refers to the culture that you can see, such as; food, clothing, and language. Deep culture often refers to the beliefs and attitude that underpin cultural manifestations.

Cultural norms are behavior patterns that are typical to a specific culture. They are usually passed down generation by generation, through parents, peers, media and religious leaders.

• Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior

Individualist societies and collectivist societies:

Individualist societies tend to have loose ties between individuals… they are expected to be able to take care of themselves as well as their immediate families. On the other hand, collectivist societies integrate each individual upon birth with close communal relationships and people tend to be strongly bonded together. In a collectivist group, if an individual is not able to meet expectations of their group the results are sometimes severe (i.e. a shunning or being banned from certain luxuries that other members in the group/culture have access to) Individualist cultures tend to have a well-defined boundary between individuals and society, while collectivist cultures tend to have a sense of connectedness/connection within each member of that society/culture.

A second dimension is uncertainty v.s. avoidance. This tests a culture's tolerability for uncertainty and ambiguity. In some cultures, members of that culture are alright with uncertainties and ambiguities, and deal well with vague situations. On the other hand, other cultures' members feel uncomfortable when faced with ambiguous and vague situations. These uncertainty-avoiding cultures stabilize themselves by setting many laws, regulations and rules within their culture, and on a religious/philosophical level, believe in absolute Truth ("There can only be on Truth, and we have it")

• Using examples, explain emic and etic concepts

Understanding the role of culture in human behavior is essential in a multicultural world. Many of the founding theorists of psychology took a solely western view. They attempted to find universal behaviors – they were looking for rules of human behavior that could be applied to all cultures around the world. This is an ETIC approach to psychology. Etic approaches are taken within cross-cultural psychology where behavior is compared across specific cultures. For example, etic studies involve drawing on the notion of universal properties of cultures, which share common perceptual, cognitive, and emotional structures.
The emic approach to psychology looks at behaviors that are culturally specific. Emics have challenged psychologists to re-examine their ideas of truth with regard to culture. In most cases, truth might be relative, based on the culture in which one is raised. In that case, it is important for psychologists to recognize these cultural variations in order to best understand members of other cultural groups. For example, how “politeness” or “decorum” is defined varies depending on the culture that is being observed. 

CLA Study - Frederic Bartlett (1932)

Cultural Cognitive Schema
Frederic Bartlett - considered one of the first cognitive psychologists of his time.

• Studied the recall abilities in subjects who heard a story from a different culture in order to examine the relationship of cognitive schemata and memory capacity. 

Bartlett used British subjects and gave them a short Native American legend called "The War of the Ghosts". They were told to read the story two times, and then after a short interval they were told to recall the story that they had just read. They were then to visit the laboratory several times over the course of weeks, months and years. This method is called serial reproduction - where the subjects have to recall the same story over different intervals of time.

• Laboratory experiment - question the ecological validity of this study.
• Cultural diversity - all the subjects were British, and the story they read was a Native American legend.
• Read the story here

As a result, Bartlett found that the subjects were all prone to similar errors in their recall abilities. These are:

• Assimilation: the subjects contorted the story so that it would fit their cultural standards. Bartlett interpreted this to be because it made it easier for the subjects to remember the story if it fit their cultural norms. The subjects' cultural schemata was responsible for the distorting of the true facts  during their recall.
• Cognitive schema: a mental view or expectations you have on certain subjects due to past experiences. Current or inherent cognitive schemata will alter the way you will interpret information in the future. In this case, cultural experiences and schemata have altered the facts of the legend in a way that made it easier for the subjects to make the incongruous facts more coherent to themselves.
• Leveling: when the subjects recalled the story, it was much shorter than the original. This is because the subjects unconsciously discarded information from the legend that did not fit their cultural schemata or standards. Information that was not comprehensible culturally was considered excess / incongruous.
• Sharpening: the subjects tended to change the order of the story in order to make it more coherent to themselves. They also tended to add emotions and extra information that was not in the original story in order to fit their own cultural frameworks. 

The subjects still recalled the general theme of the story but changed small details in order to make the stories more coherent to their expectations. The subjects distorted the story in this way because it is easier to remember things that follow a certain cognitive rule - in this case, it is cultural schemata. 

*However, it should be noted that extreme schemata-contradicting facts tend to stick in one's memory as well. This is because the information comes as a "shock" to the subjects.

Interpretation: Bartlett concluded that memory recall was a reconstructive process, not a passive process of simply remembering the words for what they are. The fact that the subjects were prone to alter the stories to fit their expectations supports Bartlett's theory. Reconstruction allows subjects to making meaning out of what they remember.

• Memories are not copies of experiences. The mind alters and interprets these experiences. 

Evaluation / things to consider:

• Gender of the subjects is not considered - most likely, both genders were used
• Serial reproduction was a method, but otherwise nothing was rigorously controlled
• Laboratory experiment = are the results ecologically valid?
• Naturalistic material was used instead of non-sense material = good
• Distinct instructions were not given to the participants

3.3 CLA Outcomes

Summary of 3.3
Cognitive level of analysis: An integrative look at happiness

Are rich people happier? ... This is not always the case.

According to the psychologist Lyubomirsky (2001), our inborn genetic set-point for happiness can account for up to 50 percent of our own happiness, where as 10 percent is due to circumstances and 40 percent is something that can be influenced by each individual. Happiness is not a concretely constructed concept... it may just be a cultural construction. 

Cognitive factors in happiness: beliefs about happiness:

Although people in the Western world are richer, they are not necessarily happier. This could be because people tend to compare themselves to others. Leon Festinger came up with a cognitive theory called the social comparison theory, where people learn about and assess themselves by comparison with others. According to the social comparison theory, people are happy if they have more than those they normally compare themselves to. Another explanation is that people link happiness to reaching certain goals, but they tend to set higher goals once they have achieved the first ones, therefore they end up never really feeling happy. Julian Rotter proposed the level of aspiration theory. This theory suggests that people examine what they can gain and how likely it is that they will achieve it before they make decisions about what to do. Expectations are influenced by previous experience as well as a desire to reach their goals. People begin to calculate and formulate their general expectancies -  general ideas about what to expect in different situations. People are more motivated to achieve the goals that they set. However, the amount of happiness that is attained as a result of the goals are often too short-lived and minimal.

Myers and Dieners (1995) have shown that there is a contradiction between wealth and happiness. They found that although the proportion of Americans who said that they were very happy remained stable at around 1/3 while the incomes of Americans as a whole increased in the last fifty years. This suggests that there is no direct link between an increase in wealth and happiness. 

Hagerty (2003) studied the relationship between happiness and distributions of wealth. He found that happiness was positively correlated with equality of distribution of wealth in the country. The average level of life satisfaction was high as the inequality of income decreased. This can be explained via Festinger's social comparison theory. People tend to compare themselves to others, and comparing yourself to those who are more fortunate (aka upward comparison) leads to dissatisfaction.

Johnson and Kruger (2006) found that although many people believe there is a relationship between happiness and wealth, it is more "satisfaction with one's own salary that brings happiness." The size of the salary does not matter- the satisfaction of the individual with his/her own salary does. Therefore, if an individual thinks they are not getting paid enough, they are likely to be more dissatisfied. By comparing themselves to those who have higher salaries, they are dissatisfied as well.

Conway, di Fazio and Mayman (1999) from Canada investigated the illusion that "money brings happiness" in a group young males and females. Researchers found that there is a widespread belief that a high-status person was generally happier, less angry, less depressed and experienced less fear in their daily lives than low-status people.
⇒Like these, faulty assumptions and associations with variables are called illusory correlations. ⇒This study demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between wealth and happiness, even though this is not supported by psychological research.

Socio-cultural factors in happiness:

According to the Dalai Lama, the key to happiness is in our own hands. Happiness can be achieved through systematic training of the mind and heart, and through the reshaping of attitudes and outlook. 矢⇒The whole point of life is to be happy.
⇒Happiness is determined by one's state of mind than external conditions, as long as basic survival needs are met.
⇒Compassion for other people is an important part of one's spiritual development. It is also the basis for individual happiness and pleasure.

⇒Dalai Lama: "If people base their happiness on wealth, they will no longer be happy when they lose it. If they base their happiness on connectedness to other people, they will still have something valuable even once they lose all their money. Having empathy and trusting others are important steps toward true happiness."

It is true that average life satisfaction of nations is highly related to income, simply because this is associated with the fulfillment of basic needs and living longer. Experiencing positive emotions is also associated with social variables such as trust, safety and the lack of corruption. (This is positive psychology = psychology with the aim of conducting research that promotes human happiness and well-being)

Biological factors of happiness:

⇒People tend to adapt to their environments.
⇒Humans have inherited the ability to habituate (get used to things) to life's circumstances.
⇒This is why humans seem to get used to pleasant things, and start to take them for granted.
⇒Humans also have inherited the tendency to notice trouble, so we focus on the more troublesome aspects of life.
⇒Humans seem to have an inner voice of dissatisfaction that prompts us to strive for MORE.

Genetics:

David Lykken: "We have an innate base-line or set-point of happiness that depends largely on the individual." The Happiness Twin Study conducted by David Lykken et al in 1996, which compared happiness scores among sets of identical and fraternal twins who grew up together or were reared apart. If the twins have similar happiness levels but are reared apart, then happiness must be genetic. ⇒Researchers found that identical twins had very similar happiness scores, and fraternal twins did not: leading them to conclude that each individual has a genetically influenced set-point for happiness, and that 50 percent of the difficulties in a person's happiness level is genetically determined.

The researchers also suggested that only 10 percent of the variance in happiness levels can be explained by situation factors. This is supported by research where richer and more beautiful people are not happier than the average person. Therefore, 40 percent of happiness remains to be in the control of the individual. 

Typical characteristics of happy people, according to Sonja Lyubomirsky in The How of Happiness

• They devote time to family and friends
• They can express gratitude for what they have
  
• They are the first to volunteer to help others
• They are naturally optimistic
• They enjoy pleasures of live and live in the present
• They spend time doing physical activities
• They are committed to lifelong goals 
• They cope well in calamities

3.2 CLA Outcomes

Learning outcomes for 3.2
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognition and Emotion

A little insight into the power of emotions in cognitive processes:

- People remember better the experiences that involve emotions. Emotions are rich and diverse, and they are often what make the experience something special. Antonio Damasio, a brain researcher explains that emotions are simply the physical signs of the body which react to outside/external stimuli.

- The three components of emotion:

Physiological changes; arousal of the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system that are not conscious

Subjective feelings; a person's own subjective feeling of an emotion (e.g. happiness)

Associated behavior; such as smiling [happy] or running away [frightened]

- A perceived dangerous event or stimulus will result in a physiological response known as fight or flight, which prepares the individual for direct action to confront the danger or to avoid to, and a cognitive appraisal of arousal - a decision about what to do based on previous experience.



- Discuss the extent to which cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion:

① Biological factors in emotion: 

The amygdala is a small structure in the temporal love that is known to be critical in the brain's emotional circuit. The amygdala is thought to have an important role in emotional memories. 
Studies performed on animals and humans indicate that the stress hormones (e.g. adrenaline) are released when strong emotions are evoked.

LeDoux's model of biological pathways of emotion in the brain

In The Emotional Brain (1999), the author LeDoux delineates two biological pathways of emotions in the brain.

1. Short route: goes from the thalamus to the amygdala for induction of emotional response
2. Long route: passes via neocortex and hippocampus before reaching an emotional response 

The amygdala receives input from the sensory processing areas in the neocortex and thamalus, and projects / expresses these to areas in the brainstem that control response systems. The connections in between the different brain structures is what allow the amygdala  to transform sensory information into emotional signals and to control our emotional responses.

Most of these processes are non-conscious.

According to LeDoux, the advantages of having direct and indirect pathways to the amygdala is flexibility in responses. When danger is perceived, the fast and direct pathway is useful because it saves time. Long pathways are useful because they allow for a more thorough evaluation of a situation that can help people and animals to avoid inappropriate responses to certain situations.

② Cognitive factors in emotion - appraisal:

Lazarus' definition of appraisal: evaluations related to how the situation will impact one's personal well-being. If the appraisal is positive: positive emotions will emerge. If the appraisal is negative: appraisal that assesses potential harm will result in negative emotions.

Lazarus (1975): "Cognitive appraisal is an important part of people's reaction to emotional stress , and that stress experiences are not only physiological." This statement means that people are psychological beings that are not simply passively responding to the world - they actively interpret and evaluate their situation.

- According to the appraisal theory, cognitive factors can modulate stress responses, such as the psychological and physiological reactions that are involved in the experience.
- Appraisal can be seen as an evaluation of the situation, like how people evaluate psychological and material resources to cope with the stressful event at hand.

⇒Speisman et al. (1964) An Experimental Manipulation of Emotions Through Cognitive Appraisal
Aim: To investigate the extent to which manipulation of cognitive appraisal could influence emotional experience.
Procedure: In this laboratory experiment, the participants saw anxiety-evoking films, such as one with an aboriginal initiation ceremony  where adolescent boys were subjected to unpleasant genital cutting.These films were shown with three different soundtracks that were intended to manipulate emotional reactions. The trauma condition group has a soundtrack with emphasis on the mutilation and pain; the intellectualization condition group has a soundtrack that gave an anthropological interpretation of the initiation ceremony; the denial condition group showed the adolescents as being willing and happy in the ceremony.
During each viewing of the film various objective physiological measures were taken, such as heart rate and galvanic skin response.
Results: The participants in the trauma condition group showed higher physiological measures of stress than the participants in the other two conditions. The results support the appraisal theory in that the manipulation of the participants' cognitive appraisal had significant impacts on the physiological stress reactions. The participants in the trauma condition reacted much more emotionally.
Evaluation: This lab experiment had a lot of controls, so lacks ecological validity. However, research on the role of appraisal in real-life emotional events tend to find the same relationship as the lab results. This study could be a demonstration of how biological and cognitive factors interact in emotion and illustrates LeDoux's theory of the two pathways in emotional processing.

Cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a large extent, but in complex ways tat are not well known. Emotions may influence cognitive processes such as memory, and cognitive processes like appraisal can influence emotions, but little is known about the exact workings of the physiological correlates of emotion.
The influence is often bidirectional and this has been explored within health and abnormal psychology. Neuroimaging investigators of emotion have identified areas in the prefrontal loves associated with active reappraisal of the emotional importance of events. This indicates that it is possible to regulate negative emotions via appraisal. (Ochsner and Gross, 2008).



- Evaluate one theory of how emotions may affect one cognitive process (flashbulb theory)
According to LeDoux, the arousal of emotion can facilitate the memory of events that occur during that aroused state. However, these memories might not always be accurate.
The theory of the flashbulb memory was suggested by Brown and Kulik (1977). Flashbulb memory is a special kind of emotional memory which refers to vivid and detailed memories of very emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with the help of a camera's flash. 
Brown and Kulik found that people said that they had very clear memories of where they were, what they did and what they felt when they first learned about an important public occurrence, such as assassinations of JFK, and Martin Luther King. The participants of the study recalled the assassination of JFK most vividly. People in the study were also asked if they had flashbulb memories of personal events... out of the 80 participants, 73 participants said that they had flashbulb memories associated with a personal shock such as a sudden death of a close relative.
Brown and Kulik suggested that there might be a special neural mechanism that triggers an emotional arousal because the event is unexpected or very important. This was only a hypothesis, but it is supported by modern neuroscience. (That is, emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events - perhaps because of the critical role of amygdala.)

Criticisms of the flashbulb theory:
Neisser (1982) questioned the idea of the flashbulb theory because people don't always know that an event important, until later. Neisser suggests that the memories are so vivid because the event itself is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event. According to Neisser, what is called a flashbulb memory might just be a narrative convention. These flashbulb memories are governed by a story-telling schema that follows a specific structure, such as place (where we were), activity (doing what?), informant  (who told us?) and affect (how do we feel about it?).

Example: January 28th, 1986:
Seven astronauts on the space shuttle CHALLENGER were killed in an accident. It was a shocking experience for those who saw the shuttle launch, in person or through the TV. Neisser and Harsch (1992) investigated people's memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident and once again two years later. The participants were confident that their memory was correct, but the researchers found that 40 percent of the memories were distorted in their final reports. Perhaps post-event information had influenced their memories. The researchers concluded that inaccuracy of emotional memories is very common.

It has been stated that current attitudes and emotions also affect the accuracy of memory. Past emotional memories are partly reconstructed based on the individual's current appraisal of events.
Holmberg and Holmes (1994) = found that men who had less happy marriages recalled early interactions in the marriage as being more negative than they really were.
Breckler (1994) = found that people's current attitudes towards blood donation impacted their memories about how they felt when they donated blood in the past.
*These are just theories.

3.1 CLA Outcomes

Learning outcomes for 3.1
Cognitive Level of Analysis & Cognitive Processes:

First of all, what is cognitive psychology?

Cognitive psychology concerns itself with the structure and functions of one's mind. Cognitive psychologists are involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the world and how the knowledge is used.

-Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

1. Human beings are information processors and mental processes guide behavior.

The mind can be viewed as a complex machine - like an intelligent, information-processing machine that uses hardware (brain) and software (mental images) in order to understand concepts

2. The mind can be studied scientifically by developing theories and using a number of scientific research methods.

This can be demonstrated in theories of cognition which are discussed, then tested. New findings can serve to be amendments for old theories, or can disprove old theories altogether. However: this scientific reliance is not ecologically valid.

3. Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors.

British psychologist Frederic Bartlett, founder of the term "schema", created this word to define the mental representation of knowledge. Bartlett was interested in seeing how cultural schemas influenced one's memory. For example, people have a hard time remembering other cultures' story, and were prone to reconstruct the story to fit in their OWN culture.

-Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

The first principle of the cognitive level of analysis, 'mental processes guides behavior' can be demonstrated by research performed by Dweck and Blackwell (2007). They researched about the role a person's mindset has in affecting a person's behavior. The participants used were low achieving students aged 12-13 y/o. All students were given an introductory lecture about the brain, and study skills. Then, half of the students took lectures of how intelligence can be developed through physical exercise, just as a body can be trained through physical exercise. As a result, the students who were trained to adopt a growth mindset about how intelligence can be improved were more motivated. This was demonstrated in their maths grades. Students in the group that did not attend the intelligence lecture showed no improvement, despite all the other interventions. Dweck states that by telling the students that their intelligence can be developed, their motivations to learn are impacted greatly. This research shows that mental processes do guide behavior.
The second principle, 'the mind can be studied scientifically' is possible because of the amazing technology that we have access to in the 21st century. CAT and fMRI scanes make it possible for us to look into peoples' brain processes. This is shown in theories and modes of cognition that are discussed and continuously tested. At times, new findings result in amendments to the original theory. The old theory or model can even be rejected completely because the empirical evidence does not support it. Also the experimental method is good because the variables can be altered freely, ecological validity is a problem. In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser said that cognitive psychology was too artificial and that researchers should never forget that cognition cannot be isolated from everyday experiences. This is why cognitive psychology is studied both in the lab and out of the lab.
The third principle, 'cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors' can be demonstrated in research done by the British psychologist, Fredric Bartlett. He coined the term 'schema', and carried out research related to how cultural schemas influence rememvering. He found that people have problems when they tried to remember stories from other cultures, and tried to reconstruct the stories according to their own cultural schemas. This also explains why memory can be subject to distortions.

-Discuss how and why particular research methods are used by cognitive researchers

Originally, laboratory experiments were the most popular methods of studies of cognitive psychology. The strengths of lab experiments were that all the variables could be controlled. However, the lack of ecological validity in lab experiments was a large disadvantage - human nature changes depending on the situation. Of recent, case studies have become increasingly popular methods of study in the field of cognitive psychology. Modern technologies (CAT and fMRI scans) are also technologies used by cognitive psychologists to study the areas of the brain that make decisions, etc.

-Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

For studies that use modern technology such as CAT and fMRI scans, the most worrisome ethical aspects would be: anonymity and the right to withdraw. If the anonymity of a subject is not respected, then their self-esteem can be hurt. Also, for case studies, the anonymity should definitely be kept (confidentiality).

-Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

A lot of research support the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory. This theory of schemas is useful in order to understand how people interpret information, stories, and make inferences. A limitation is evident with the schema theory that Bartlett had thought of: this is due to the ambiguity and vagueness of the theory itself. Cohen (1993) criticized the schema theory saying that the concept was too vague to be helpful in understanding the cognitive processes of humans.

A study that supports the fact that schema has effects on memory: Anderson and Pichert (1978) proceeded with an experiment in an attempt to investigate whether schema processing was able to influence encoding and retrieval of the memory making process. Participants heard a story about a pair of boys who skipped school and went to the home of one of them, knowing the parents would not be home. The participants were described the facts of the story - and were told to re-understand the story of the house from the point of view of a buyer and the point of view of a burglar. (This was the encoding period). Then, for 12 minutes the subjects were given tasks that kept their minds off of things. After another 5 minute delay in the experiment, half of the participants were given the OTHER point of view to consider. The other half was told to retain their schema from the "encoding" process. As a result, the researchers found that the group with the CHANGED schema recalled 7 percent more points on the second recall test compared to the first trial. The recall of the points that were directly linked to the new schema was increased by 10 percent, whereas recall points that were important to the first schema (and only the first schema) declined. The researchers found that the group which continued with the first schema remembered FEWER details at the second trial. This research suggested that people encoded information, but this was irrelevant to their prevailing schema. The second schema was more effective. 

-Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies

Cognitive process: the multi-store and working model of memory
How many: there are two - Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): Multi-store model of memory

The multi-store model of memory / Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Atkinson and Shiffrin were among the first to create a basic structure of memory, using their "multi-sore model of memory". The model created after this, called the working model of memory was based on this model.
This model is based on the two assumptions that memory consists of a number of separate stores and that the memory processes are sequential. 
"Rehearsing" simply means that a task/something needs to be repeated several times in order to be stored into our heads. Information from the world enters sensory memory, which is modality specific - this means that it is related to various senses. Information in this store only stays for a very short time... only a small amount will be passed onto the short-term memory store. 
The capacity of the short term memory is limited to around seven times, and only lasts for six to 12 seconds. Rehearsals play key roles in determining what traits get to go to the long term memory store.
In the long term memory store, there is a vast, limitless storehouse of information. However, psychologists do not specifically know how much information can be stored there. The material is not an exact replica of events or facts, but is stored in a outlined form. Memories can even be distorted. 

Baddeley and Hitch (1974): the working model of memory

The working model of memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

This view challenges the multi-store model of memory in the sense that it challenges the fact the short term memory store is a SINGLE store.
The central executive is a sort of controlling system that monitors the operations of other components, called slave systems. It's sort of like the CEO of a company. The central executive (that is, short term memory store) has a limited capacity and is modality free, so any sensory information can be processed here.
There are two important jobs of the central executive, called the AUTOMATIC LEVEL and the SUPERVISORY ATTENTIONAL LEVEL.
- The automatic level: based on habits and is usually controlled by stimuli from the environment. This includes daily and routine procedures and tasks.
- The supervisory attentional level: deals with emergencies and makes new strategies where the old ones are no longer applicable... when a car is zooming and about to hit your bicycle!
People focus a lot on automatic processing in their daily lives. 

The episodic buffer: acts as a temporary and passive display store until the information is needed - like a t.v. screen. Imagine when you try to remember a scenery that you saw a long time ago - this will appear through the episodic buffer.

Phonological loop: divided into two components - the ARTICULATORY CONTROL SYSTEM and hte PHONOLOGICAL STORE. 
- Articulatory control system: is the inner voice. It holds your information in a verbal form. This happens when you try to remember lyrics and repeat them to yourself. This articulatory loop holds words ready as you prepare to speak.
- The phonological store: the inner ear. It holds speech-based material in phonological forms. 
A memory trace can last only 1.5 to 2 seconds if its not refreshed by the articulatory control system. The phonological store can only receive information directly from sensory memory in the form of auditory material, from long term memory into the form of verbal information, and from the articulatory control system.

The visuospatial sketchpad: inner eye. Deals with visual and spatial information from either sensory memory or long term memory.

Evidence of the working memory model: the prediction of the working memory model is that there will be impairment in the concurrent task when a dual-task technique is being used. (Multi-tasking). The findings of the dual-task study show that although there was an impairment in the efficiency of the subject, it was not catastrophic. The researchers take this as evidence that the short term memory has more than one unitary store, and that a total breakdown of working memory demands more pressure than the concurrent task in the experiment.

Evaluation of this model: working memory plays a big role in learning in childhood years. Pickering and Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children and found that there was an improvement in the performance in working memory capacity from the ages of 5-15 years. Holmes et al (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacities and childrens' maths attainment in relation to age. As a result, they found that older children could have their maths performance significantly predicted by their performance on the visual patterns test. According to Eysenck (1988) there is evidence that individual differences in intelligence can depend on difference in working memory quality.

-Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Cognitive process: memory
There are two general categories for long-term memory. These are explicit memories and implicit memories. Explicit memories can be retrieved consciously, while implicit memories cannot. There are also two sub-categories within each category. In explicit memory, there are semantic memories (factual memories) and episodic memories (memory based on personal experiences). In implicit memory, there are emotional memories and procedural memories (memories based on habit, repetition and skills).

Eric Kandel found (through animal research) that explicit memories are affected by the hippocampus of the brain. The hippocampus is responsible for explicit memory formation. Case studies of humans who have hippocampal damage and invasive studies on animals have revealed that a damaged hippocampus results in the inability to form explicit memories. However, the interesting fact is that emotional memories are unaffected. Therefore, memories that are intertwined with an emotion tend to stick.

On the other hand, researchers have also found that the amygdala is responsible for the storage of emotional memories. LeDoux, a neuroscientist, claims that certain memories have emotional significance and this may be why memories that are based on emotional events are easier to recall. Something to consider: people with PSTD might have problems forgetting a traumatic event because the event is strongly tied with an experienced emotion. Researchers recently found that damage in the prefrontal cortex of the brain makes memories hard to eliminate, and makes controlling emotional outbursts a difficulty.

-Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

US psychologist Jerome Bruner states that children of any culture learn the basics of culture through schooling and daily interactions with people of their culture. These people can include: parents, grandparents, friends, peers, siblings and teachers. These people are important in the transmission of knowledge (whether the transmission of knowledge is informal or formal, doesn't matter).
There was once an hypothesis that assumed that cognitive processes such as memory follow universal laws, and humans around the globe all process information in the same way. Following this logic, this meant that memory tests could be applied globally, and that researchers could expect the same results (regardless of culture). However, we now know that this was not the case. When Western researchers performed tests with participants in non-Western countries, they found that the results were different - they did poorly. Cross-cultural psychologists know now that if you want to test memory in a group of people, you need to consider the insight and culture of that group.

Cole and Scribner (1974) aimed to investigate the memory strategies in different cultures. They compared the recall ability of a series of words in the US and among Kpelle people in Liberia.
The researchers knew that they couldn't use the same list of words for the Kpelle people as they did with those in the US due to the difference in culture, so they started by observing everyday cognitive activities in Liberia.
This helped them develop relevant memory tasks. They also used Kpelle college students to act as researchers because they spoke the same language as the participants. They also made sure that the words that were used in the experiment were familiar to the Kpelle people.
In spite of these precautions, Cole and Scribner were amazed at the results of this experiment. There were striking cultural differences in the way that the Kpelle people went about remembering and solving the presented problems.
Cole and Scribner asked Liberian children from different age groups to recall as many items as possible from four categories: utensils, clothes, tools and vegetables. It was expected that the older children would recall more items after practice, but researchers found that this wasn't the case UNLESS the children had attended school for several years. The non-schooled children did not improve their recall ability after the age of 10. They remembered around 10 items the first time. After 15 trials, they only remembered two more items. Children who had attended schools learned the lists as rapidly as the children in the US have - they even used the same strategy to recall: based on categorizing similarity of objects.
When the data was analyzed, the researchers found that the illiterate children did not use the strategy "chunking", where bits of information were grouped into larger units. They also found that the Kpelle people did not use "rehearsal", as the position of the word in the list did not have an effect on the rate of recall.
After this, Cole and Scribner presented the items in a meaningful sequence, as a part of a story. This is called a narrative. The illiterate children were able to recall objects easily, and even chunked them according to the roles they played in the story.
Memory studies like this invite reflection. Even though the ability to remember is universal, the strategies that are used to remember are not. It's a problem that so many memory studies are associated with the formal schooling of the participant - especially when the participant has never attended school before. The conclusion is that people learn to remember in ways that are related to their cultures and everyday lives.

-Evaluate the extent to which a cognitive process is reliable

Vocabulary:

• Reconstructive memories: the tendency that people have to try to make/recall a coherent memory - to try to make sense of the world
• Repression: the causation of "forgetting" - a definition by Sigmund Freud. According to Freud, people who have experienced intense emotional and anxiety provoking events may use defense mechanisms such as repression to take these painful memories and send them to the unconscious area of the mind. They "forget" about these events.
• Serial reproduction: when a person reproduces the original story, a second person reproduces the first person's reproduction, a third person reproduces the reproduction of the second person... on and on.
• Ecological validity: the artificiality of a study - can the findings be applied outside the lab?

Empirical testing of the reliability of memory:
Frederic Bartlett (1932) The War of the Ghosts memory experiment: 
Frederic Bartlett argued that memory is reconstructive and schemas affect memory recall. He also demonstrated the role of culture in schema processing with this experiment.
Method: serial reproduction of a story from a foreign culture. Around six or seven reproductions are made in total. This method is meant to duplicate the process by which rumors and gossip are spread, or how legends are passed on through generations.
Procedure: The story used by Bartlett is an American Indian story called The War of the Ghosts. 
a. Asked participants to read the story two times, without telling them what the aim of the study was
b. 15 minutes pass, and Bartlett asks the participants to reproduce the story from memory
c. Tells them to reproduce the story a few more times once they moved to his laboratory
Results:
a. Each participant's memory of an experience changed with each reproduction
b. The story became shorter - the original story was 329 words, but the 6, 7th reproductions were a mere 180 words
c. The story remained coherent no matter how it deviated from the original piece
d. The story became more conventional - it retained only the details that could be assimilated to the shared past experiences and cultural backgrounds of the participants
Interpretation:
a. It was difficult for people from Western cultures to reproduce this story because of the difference in culture
b. The people reconstructed their pasts trying to fit it into existing schemas
c. The more complicated the story, the more likely that it is to be distorted
d. People have an effort for meaning - they try to find a familiar pattern in their own experiences
= As a result, this study shows that FAKE memories can be made. Memory is not always reliable. More experiments and studies that test the reliability of memory are on pages 81-85.
Eyewitness testimonies are often incorrect - a good study to focus on as well.

-Explain the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

Neuro-imaging techniques allow researchers to obtain images of brain functioning and structures. This knowledge that is gathered is used to understand the relationship between cognitive processes and behavior.
PET scans:
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a scanning device/method that can measure crucial functions in the brain, such as glucose consumption and blood flow. PET scans can even detect brain tumors and memory disorders due to Alzheimer's disease. The use of new technology has helped neuroscientists make methods to detect the signs of Alzheimer's disease so early that patients may not even have thought something to be wrong themselves.
MRI scans:
Magnetic resonance imaging is a technology that provides 3D pictures of brain structures. The MRI and fMRI work by detecting the changes of the use of oxygen in blood. When an area in a brain is more active, it uses more oxygen. This is used to see what areas are active when people perform cognitive tasks such as reading and problem solving. (These scanners can even be used in marketing research, to detect which areas are active when you look at a picture of your favorite brand.)
These technologies make it possible for researchers to observe brain damage - like the case of HM. It's also possible to relate this to cognitive functioning, such as with memory. However, the brain is a very complex organ and not totally understood. Just because one part of the brain is active when it performs a particular cognitive process does not mean that cause-effect relationships can be established between specific brain structures and human preference for things (like brands).